NEW ENGLANDER AND YALE REVIEW. No. CCXXVI. JANUARY, 1889. ARTICLE 1.THE LATE PROFESSOR GREEN OF OX- FORD THE DOCTOR GREY OF ROBERT ELSMERE. Works of Thom,as Hill Green, late Fellow of Balliol College, and Whytes Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Oxford, edited by IR. L. NETTLESHIP, Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, Vol. III, Miscellanies and Memoir, with a portrait. London, Longmans, Green, and Company, and New York, 15 East Sixteenth street. EIGHT months ago, had the question been asked, who was Thomas Hill Green? the answer would have been somewhat as follows: He was one of the ablest philosophical writers of the present generation and also one of the most effective agents for good in the University of Oxford, in various directions, specu voL. xlv. 1 2 The late Profe8sor Green of Oxford. [Jan., lative and practical; a man whose influence moreover will for many years survive his untimely death. At that time the question and its answer would have interested only here and there a solitary reader. But it is far otherwise now when the answer to our question is: Mr. Green is iDr. Grey of Robert Elsmere, the wise & r Oracle of the tale, who was resorted to by its hero for needed counsel in the hour of his extremest necessity, and who is named with supreme confidence by the gifted author of the story as the object of her special regard, and of whom she more than intimates that he had long ago decided against the claims of the supernatural in the Christian historywhich decision should be taken as authoritative and final. It is altogether timely that just at this time the memoir of Professor Green should be given to the public in the last vol- ume of his works. This memoir is admirable of its kind, pre- pared as it was with the careful and sympathizing fidelity of his associate for many years in BaUiol College. And yet he writes under the constraint which is imposed by the desire on the one hand to allow Mr. Green and his friends to speak for them- selves, and on the other to avoid any appearance of partizan- ship with respect to the opinions of his honored colleague and friend. This constraint is so obvious and pressing as to give an air of stiffness and reserve to a narrative which otherwise is picturesque with lively descriptions and glowing with per- sonal sympathy. It is no secret to any one who is only super- ficially acquainted with the internal history of thought and feeling at Oxforda story of controversy and debateduring the thirty years in which Professor Green was an inmate of Balliol College that essential changes have taken place in its intellectual and practical life and that to some of these changes Professor Green has given an important, if not a decisive, impulse. That Mr. Kettleship has designed to be evenly and severely veracious and just is evident upon every page and in every line. It is almost equally patent that this purpose has interfered somewhat with the vivacity and glow of which the narrative was capable and to which it almost of necessity impelled. Whatever disappointment we may feel that the nar- rative is less vivacious than we might desire is more than 1889.] [like lai~e Profeecor Green of Oa~ford. 3 counterbalanced by the modest and cautions and even-handed justice that seems to have controlled every description and statement. Mr. Green was born in 1836, at Birkin, in Yorkshire, W. IR., a country parish of which his father was Rector. It is worthy of notice as accounting somewhat for many things in his character and opinions, that an ancestor married as his first wife a grand-daughter of Oliver Cromwell and afterwards a daughter of one of Cromwells officers, Colonel Sanders. His mother died in his infancy, and he was left to the controlling influence of his father who is characterized as the best friend of his childhooda man who combined deep religious feeling, unencumbered with dogmatic learning, with native eloquence, love for the peasantry, a keen interest in politics and humorous observation of men, all of them characteristics which were certain to form a congenial atmosphere for such a receptive nature as that of the son. From the first, he gave signs of marked individuality, rather in the form of a stubborn self- reliance in honest ways than of any flights of genius. At four- teen, he went to Rugby under Principal Goulburn, where he remained for five years till he went to Oxford, and where he earned nO brilliant distinction, but developed more fully and consistently the self-reliance of his childhoodgenerally in fidelity to his school tasks, yet somewhat modified by an incon- venient unconformability to the ways of his fellows and of his instructors. Among other characteristic things recorded of him is this, that among four hundred boys he was the only water drinker. By this time he begins to have opinions of his own and looks forward to Oxford with no glowing anticipa- tions of its attractions or admiring estimate of the industry or aims of its inmates. It would seem that up to this time he had not yet fallen in with any either books or men who were fitted strongly or permanently to affect his opinions or his character, but was still feeling about in an indefinite yet predestined fashion for the elements which would be congenial to his life. These he found at last in Balliol College, of which he had become a member, and which was then stirring with the beginnings of that intellectual life which its now distinguished IMlaster has been the means of so effectively awakening in its 4 The late Professor Green of Oxford. instructors and students, and to which Green in his time gave an impulse which was unique of its kind. It does not appear from the narrative that he had at first any special interest in the studies or authors which were used by the tutors or were prescribed by the examiners, but that he gradually connected with these tasks of routine, researches and studies which awakened an intellectual and moral interest on the part of his pupils over and above any arising from their relations to univer- sity examinations and honors. We know from other sources that, during his university life, the controversies and discussions which grew out of the Tractarian movement had gradually been super- seded by the more fundamental inquiries which concern the his- torical trnthfulness and supernatural trustworthiness of the evan- gelical story and that the temporary interest which had been awakened by Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer had compelled a re-examination of the received philosophy of Locke and the imposing terminology of Kant and Hegel, so that the pro- foundest discussions of these themes were found to be alto- gether en r~gle, under the large discretion which was assumed and allowed by the men in authority. Whatever may have been the possible or the actual abuses of the English uni- versity system in its diversified history, the fact is unques- tioned that at times it has been a most effective agent for good through its instructors and pupils in the great movements of thought which have characterized or rather which have created English history. The influence of Professor Green is a strik- ing example of this trnth. It is not easy to explain this except by a minute and attenuated detail which would be well nigh useless and unintelligible to those who are not acquainted with the operation of the system. And yet some light may pene- trate the most darkened understanding which will follow the course of Professor Green, as recorded by his biographer. It was in 1855 that he had entered Balliol, which for many obvious reasons would naturally attract a young man of his principles and temperament. Here he fell under the influ- ence and was attracted by the society of Jowett, then a Fellow and Professor, and afterwards, and now, its accomplished Master. Professor Conington and Mr. Charles Parker are also named as among the intimate associates who discovered his promise and 1889.] The late Profe88or Green of Oxford. 5 endeavored to awaken his energies and to concentrate his studies. They were in a measure successful. In 1859 he gained a First Class. In 1860 he was employed as a lecturer on ancient and modem history, and in 1860 he was elected Fel- low. To Professor Jowett he felt himself the most indebted and from 1860 to 1866 the two were most closely united. With Conington he was usually associated in the summer read- ing parties in which he rejoiced in the freshness of natures beauty and luxuriousness and still more in the rough simplicity of the thoughtful country people with whom the two were brought into contact. Wordsworth, Carlyle, and Maurice are named as authors in English literature with whom, at that time, Green especially sympathized. Politics in the noble ethical sense of the term might be said to have been very early the en- grossing theme of his speculative meditations, and the Family, the State, and the Church to have been recognized by him as divine institutionsveritable revelations from God and requir- ing on the part of man ethical and religious homage and affec- tionby a theory in which seemed to be blended the poetry of Chivalry, the prose of Radicalism, and the consecration of Religion. This theory he was always ready to expound and defend, but as might be expected it was stupid prose or empty declamation in the judgment of the most of the declaimers and listeners at the debates of the Oxford Union. His political sympathies and antipathies were by no means ideal only. Louis Napoleon he stigmatizes as a successful brigand, and Palmerston, as the most mischievous man in England, while John Bright he glorifies as one of the noblest. In short, his political creed was, at that time, transfigured into a religion, or as his biographer expresses it: The strongest elements in Greens nature seem to have been the sense of public duty and the sense of religious dependence, and in the creeds of modern toleration and modern evangelicalism he found a congenial lan- guage which he had no difficulty in translating when he wished into that of German metaphysics, and adds: The passages quoted above indicate the position at which he had arrived at the age of four and twenty and which he never realiy abandoned. The idea of a free personality exercising its freedom under con- ditions which it has itself created formed the meeting point for his political and religious aspirations. 6 7k late Profe88or Green of Oxford. [Jan., After obtaining his fellowship, his future occupation for life naturally began to occupy his thoughts. Under the natural drift of circumstances and the persuasive influence of Mr. Jowett, he by degrees became more and more firmly nested in Balliol and here he remained till his death, with more variety and eulargement of his sphere of instruction and influence, with more and more of definite purpose in his studies and labors, and an immense augmentation of his capacity to influence young men in the way of personal intercourse. Perhaps no portion of the inner life of the University of Oxford has been of late more critical than during his residence as an instructor. That in many respects his influence was most salutary, cannot be ques- tioned. As a philosopher and philosophical critic he was strik- ingly able. His critical examinations of Locke and Berkeley and Hume, of Stuart Mill and Spencer and Lewes and Kant, are acknowledged to be masterly and will be regarded as essen- tial to the library of every thorough student of the present phases of philosophical thought. Though needlessly elaborate and diffuse they will be read till they are superseded by simpler and more condensed presentations of the many fundamental truths which they assert and defendmany of which these criticisms were the first to set in a light so strong and so con- vincing that hereafter they will not be easily overlooked or denied. What they were and how they were defended we do not propose to explain. We choose to limit ourselves to a brief exposition of Greens ethical system and the application which he made of it to the Christian evidences and Christian theology. In a form somewhat condensed this ethical theory may be stated as follows: The central conception of the universe of being is a single eternal activity of which it is the essence to be self-conscious, 1. e., to be itself and not itself in one. Of this activity every particular existence is a limited manifestation and among other such existences those which we call ourselves. In so far as there is a we at all and a world which we call ours, it is because the self which is the unity of the world is communicated nuder the conditions of our physical organization. It is this fact, the fact of a self-conditioned or free energy acting under limiting conditions, which makes our experiences a continual 1889.1 The late Professor Green of Oxford. 7 self-contradiction between what we are and what we have it in us to be. The conception of self-consciousness as the ultimate reality, is one to which we are led by reflection upon our own experi- ences, or in other words, by asking ourselves what we mean by a fact. It makes no difference whether fact be taken in the minimum or the maximum of its meaning, whether as the simplest possible fact, as something or as the highly complex facts covered by such words as science, art, mora~ty, or as the all-inclusive fact which we call the world. At whatever point it is considered, it is found to consist in relationship and relationships. It is through these relationships that God makes himself known to us more and more distinctly. It is by con- forming ourselves more and more completely to them that we are ethically united to God. This brief statement of the underlying metaphysics of Greens system, abridged from the words of his biographer, may pre- pare us to understand how it was possible for him to hold that in ethics we must assume a self-conscious being acting through each free being and manifesting himself more and more dis- tinctly through the relationships which connect man with man and man with God, as man proceeds towards that complete harmony which ensues when knowledge is complete and love is perfect, or, as we take the liberty to add in the opposite direc- tion, when dissonance and alienation prevail. This statement of Greens theory may seem dry and unfruitful as the seared and withered leaves of autumn, but held as a living faith by himself it was germinant with ever-springing life, wide-reach- ing enough to meet every exigency, a formula of duty suffi- ciently inspiring to breathe life beneath the ribs of death. In the remarks which follow, it will be understood that our object is not so much to show how he held and applied his theory, as it is to show how his theory explains the man. One remark seems to be here in place and indeed to be required for the full and fair understanding of his fundamental philosophy, and that is, that it is not the same with ilegelianism as it is often interpreted, as a system which substitutes thought and thought relations for persons and things, and which re- solves the uhiverse of fact into a self-developed structure 8 The late Profes8or Green of Owford. [Jan., of logical entities. No better explanation of the differences between the two systems can be found than is furnished in the few brief and pointed strictures made by our author in a short criticism of Principal J. Cairds Introduction to the Phil- osophy of Religion. To assume, because all reality requires thought to conceive it, that therefore thought is the condition of its existence, is, indeed, unwar- rantable. But it is another matter if, when we come to examine the constituents o~ that which we account realthe determinations of thingswe find that they all imply some synthetic action which we only know as exercised by our own spirit. But when we have satisfied ourselves that the world in its truth or full reality is spiritual, because on no other supposition is its unity explicable, we may still have to confess that a knowledge of it in its spiritual realitysuch a knowledge of it as would be a knowledge of Godis impossible to us. To know God we must be God. The unify- ing principle of the world is indeed in us; it is our self. But, as in us, it is so conditioned by a particular animal nature that, while it yields that idea of the world as one which regulates all our knowledge, our actual knowledge remains a piecemeal process. We spell out the rela- tions of things one by one; we pass from condition to condition, from effect to effect; but, as one fragment of truth is grasped, another has escaped us, and we never reach that totality of apprehension through which alone we could know the world as it is and God in it. This is the infirmity of our discursive understanding. If in one sense it reveals God, in another it hides him. Language which seems to imply its identification with God, or with the world in its spiritual reality, can lead to nothing but confusion. p. 145. We are far from asserting that Professor Green was always clear or self-consistent in the exposition of his own system. We would rather say that the personal and practical sympathies of the man had quite as much to do with his convictions and his practical principles as had his metaphysical theories. While on the one hand he delighted in thinking and was entirely at home in the intellectual activities of patient analysis and ad- venturous synthesis, he was equally interested, on the other, in the practical conclusions to which his daring and adventurous logic would conduct him. A reverent conservatism and a reckless radicalism seem to have been the impulses which con- spired to lift him to the heights of bold speculation and of patient and persevering action. Hence he was often unpopular or rather he was always prepared, we had almost said he was 1889.] The late Profeseor Green of O~ford. 9 uniformly impelled, to espouse an unpopular cause. And as it never fails to be tine that what is conceived to be radicalism in politics, philosophy, and religion attracts more or less attention by reason of the simple oddity of its antagonism, a temper like Greens could not fail to attach himself to an ample number of singular if not unpopular parties. We have already noticed that when at Rugby he was alone among four hundred boys as a water drinker, and also that somewhat early in his university life he dared to idolize John Bright, the man of all others who would least of all expect to find a following in the walks and halls which are so redolent of Toryism. What is more remarkable was the early and ardent interest which he took in our own civil war and the bold and sturdy patience with which, from the beginning to the end, he defended the cause of freedom and the Union against a host of natural and factitious opponents. What is, perhaps, still more remarkable, is the interest which he felt in that other Great Rebellion, the civil war in which so many of Englands noblest sons were engaged, and in which so many of her choicest spirits sealed their faith on the field or the scaffold. The editor scarcely needed to apologize for the publication of the lectures on The English Revolution, or The Eng- lAsh Commonwealth, as the running title has it. If those lectures render no other service,they are a fervent and out- spoken confession of the authors political ideals and his politi- cal faith and furnish the key to much of his public conduct. The reader of them finds no difficulty in tracing the influences of his relationship to Cromwell and Cromwells Colonel Sand- ers, or in finding in his ardent idealism a kinship with Sir Harry Vane, that noblest idealist whom Milton commemorates, and England and America each claims as its own. The concluding sentences of this course are fraught with suggestive meaning. Two palpable benefits the short triumph of puritanism did win for England. It saved it from the catholic reaction, and it created the dissenting bodies. If it seems but a poor change from the fanatic sacerdotalism of Laud to the genteel and interested sacerdotalism of modern English churchmanship, yet the fifteen years of vigorous growth which Cromwells sword secured for the church of the sec- taries, gave it a permanent force which no reaction could suppress, and which has since been the great spring of political life in 10 like late Profes8or Green of O~rford. [Jan., England. The higher enthusiasm, however, which breathed in Crom- well and Vane, was not puritanic or English merely. It belonged to the universal spiritual force which as ecstasy, mysticism, quietism, phi- losophy, is in permanent collision with the carnal interests of the world, and which, if it conquers them for a moment, yet again sinks under them, that it may transmute them more thoroughly to its service. Death, said Vane on the scaffold, is a little word, but it is a great work to die. So his own enthusiasm died that it might rise again. It was sown in the weakness of feeling, that it might be raised in the intellectual comprehension which is power. The people of England, he said again, have been long asleep. I doubt they will be hungry when they awake. They have slept, we may say, another two hun- dred years. If they should yet wake and be hungry, they will find their food in the ideas which, with much blindness and weakness, he vainly offered them, cleared and ripened by a philosophy of which he did not dream. p. 864. The fact should not be overlooked that these lectures were delivered in 1867, before the writer had as yet fought his way into a position in which he could be fearless of consequences and command respect for his opinions however unpopular they might be. Mr. Greens interest in education, both in the school and university, was eminently characteristic. He was sensitively alive to the fact that a large portion of the population of Eng- laud who by reason of their wealth might naturally ask for the higher education and use it most advantageously for them- selves and their feliows, were practically shut out from the charmed walks upon which they might gaze, but within which they could not enter. The son of a university man, edncated at Rugby and at Oxford, crowned with University honors and sharing in University emoluments, he had the rare insight and the still rarer sympathetic generosity which are thus described by his biographer: Middle-class education has come to be understood as the kind of education which, being divorced from the universities, having no stim- ulus from government inspection, and being generally conducted merely with a view to commercial profit by the principals, is seldom either of a thorough or of an elevating kind. On the other side the term education of a gentleman, like the term gentleman itself, has acquired a meaning unknown in any other countries. The term would be intelligible if it retained the meaning of a man of a certain lineage, or of a man holding a landed estate according to a certain tenure. It would be intelligible again if it meant a man habitually 1889.] The late Proftssor Green of Oxford. it honorable in feeling, conduct, and speech. But with us nowadays it means neither of these things. It seems chiefly to indicate a kind of manner and tone of feeling acquired by those educated at the miscalled public schools, and borrowed from them with more or less perfect- ness of imitation by others. I do not depreciate the value of this manner and tone of feeling, but I regret that it should be a mark of social distinction. Whatever is really of value in it should be charac- teristic of all men of liberal education. A properly organized system of schools would level up without levelling down. It would not make the gentleman any the less of a gentleman in the higher sense of the term, but it would cure him of his unconscious social insolence just as it would cure others of social jealousy. To promote such a system by the establishment of a high school in his own town was his last public act, and almost his last public utterance was the expression of a hope that the time will come when the phrase education of a gentleman~ will have lost its meaning, because the sort of education which alone makes the gentleman in any true sense will be within the reach of all. As it was the aspiration of Moses that all the Lords people should be prophets, so with all seriousness and reverence we may hope and pray for a condition of English society in which all honest citizens will rec- ogmze themselves and be recognized by each other as gentlemen. Memoir, pp. lvii-lviii. To overcome these evils, he labored faithfully and persist- ently during the last and the best years of his life. He fought these social difficulties manfully and sturdily where they were most deeply rooted and had become entwined with all that was sacred in religion, venerable in learning, and honored in tradition, that is, in Oxford itself, and this not by declamation or discussion merely but by patient experiment, in the High and Middle Class Schools of the city. Whether or not the ideal at which he aspired is attainable in any country may be open to question, but whether it is or is not, the spirit in which he labored was eminently humane and Christian. Had Mr. Matthew Arnold been animated more warmly by a similar spirit, had he made less fun of the Philistines whose defects he satirized so amusingly, and sought to treat their defects in a temper somewhat more practical, by means of systematic and radical reforms in the public education of Great Britain, he would have added a somewhat more brilliant luster to his deservedly brilliant fame. We find ourselves insensibly yet necessarily brought to the most difficult yet the most interesting portion of our task, the delineation of Professor Greens theory of religion and the 12 The late Professor Green of O~ford. [Jan., Christian Revelation. We do not wonder that his biographer has found it difficult to reduce this theory to a few compre- hensive statements, or to reproduce it in the ordinary termi- nology of creeds and confessions, of dogmas and systems. One thing is certain, that the opinions which constitute its underlying philosophy were held in all seriousness and were applied to all the problems of thinking and living. Whatever we may think of the religious philosophy of Professor Green we cannot doubt that it pervaded and controlled all his think- ing and that it was to him a faith by which he would live and die. We have already referred to his doctrine of the natural and necessary recognition of God as a self-conscious spirit, enforc- ing obligation in the several relations of human life, and capa- ble of being intensified till He should be a controlling and ever present force. Of the incarnation he held that Jesus of Nazareth was God and man, not because his physical birth and death took place under conditions impossible to the normal human organization but on the contrary because, having the normal human organization in its entirety, he realized in and through it his absolute union with God and became in actual fact what all men have in them potentially to become. This divinization of humanity, this incarnation took place in Him at a certain time and place, under special historical conditions, which the gospel narrative enables us partially but only par- tially to reconstruct. Thus writes Mr. Greens biographer in a condensed summary of his theory of the Jucarnation. From Professor Greens Essay on Christian Dogma, we gather much more, which bears directly upon the sources of our knowledge of the Christ of the first century and the impression which he made upon his generation when living and upon Paul after the termination of his earthly life. That in this theory there are lacuna? valde deflenda? can hardly escape the notice of any thoughtful reader, who is only moderately gifted with the historic sense. That Professor Green should attach little or no importance to the impression which the actual personality of Jesus, as well as his claims for himself, must have made upon every receptive mindand indeed in the way of reaction upon the unreceptiveis to us incomprehensible. We are sim 1889.] The late Profe8sor Green of Ocejord. 13 ply astonished at the slight historical value which he attaches to the records of his sayings or doings, indeed, to any repro- ductions of his human life, especially of the definite claims or assertions which Christ makes for himself. He also overlooks the enormous probability that all Palestine was full of verbal reports of the sayings and doings of this wonderful personage which must have been everywhere current till the siege and overthrow of the Jewish capitol. Next he dares to assert from Pauls own testimony, that his own conversion occurred in spite of ignorance (this is the necessary inference from his own language) of the facts of our Lords life prior to his death as detailed in the synoptical gospels, etc. Christ, according to his own language, was made known to him by revelation, but by such a revelation, judging by his own description of its effects in the epistle to the Galatians, as might be vouchsafed, without a voice from heaven, or a light above the brightness of the sun, to any like spirit brooding on the bare facts of the death and resurrection of the Divine Son of man.~~ We do not need to cite the fervent and eloquent language with which Professor Green repeats the same thoughts, to enforce the inquiry whether inferences like these can be justi- fied by any rational psychological theory or any accredited history of human experience. That man has a spiritual and moral nature we do not for a moment question; that he has an intuitive consciousness of God and is more or less actually alive to his needs as related to God we will neither question nor denybut that the imagination of man could evolve from its own spiritual consciousness such an object of wonder and worship, or invest with the dignity of manifested truth, such paradoxical claims for himself as are reported to have fallen from the lips of Jesus, is of itself so clearly impossible as at once to be regarded as simply incredible. The convictions of the human intellect upon this single point seem to us to be prac- tically unanimous, and practically incapable of change. To the radical and incautious theory of Professor Green we can only find a parallel in the products of those seething brains which were so active in the days of the Great Rebellion, when the lips of many a gallant colonel and doughty sergeant claimed 14 The late Profes8or Green of Oxford. [Jan., to be inspired in the eminent sense of this mnch abused term. We doubt not that many as eloquent an utterance of theo- sophic speculation fell from the lips of some of Cromwells officers when exalted to the prophetic mood, as ever dropped from the pen of Professor Green in his loftiest visions. It were perhaps more exact to find a striking likeness to them in the discourses of some of the so-called Cambridge men of the same period who sought to Christianize the speculations and language of the Platonic school, and to harmouzie the philos- ophy of the times with a comprehensive Catholic theology. But whatever we may think of the permanent value of Pro- fessor Greens contribution to Christian thought and however severely we may judge his theological speculations, we cannot but recognize the value of his services to Christian truth in the inroads which he made upon the unepiritual eccle8ia8ticism which has long held sway in Oxford and through Oxford over much of the Protestant world. We confess that theories like those of Professor Green, sound strangely enough as coming from Oxford, and yet there is perhaps no center of speculation where they might render a more efficient and useful service. So far as the discussion of them shall awaken the attention of its students to the uses and abuses of dogmatic theology and of scholastic creeds, to the relation of Biblical conceptions and philosophical truths to the dogmas of parties and of sects, such an agitation cannot but be most salutary. So far as such discussions hold the atten- tion to the far reaching fundamental principle that the creeds of the church are of necessity the products of the schools, and therefore are to be distinguished from the faith of the church, which concerns itself mainly with relations of fact and of duty, so far they cannot but strengthen the faith and enlarge the charity of its gifted and cultured scholars. So far, also, as they direct the attention to the difference between a living faith in a person and a history, and the intellectual apprecia- tion of logical distinctions, so far will they provide for the freedom of scientific discussion and the exactness of scientific thought on the one hand and the fervor of personal faith and of devoted service on the other. The memoir and works of Professor Green are fitted to inculcate both these lessons. They 1889.] [like late Professor Green of Oxford. 15 certainly present an admirable and inspiring example of a man of heroic mould who strove with equal earnestness for the right to think and reason as truly as for the privilege and obli- gation to feel and to act, and exemplified most admirably the impulse to love and worship as well as to labor and sacrifice. While we cannot but regret that speculatively he failed to emerge into a clearer adjustment of his speculative and his- torical faith, we cannot but rejoice that he ever dwelt in the broad and bright light of fervent and cheerful Christian duty and Christian aspiration. Professor Green died as he had lived in a heroic spirit. When his life was glowing with promise and hope, he was summoned to a speedy departure. He committed to the care of his friend and favorite pupil, Mr. Arnold Toynbee, two dis- courses of a practical character which he had delivered to his pupils, to be published at his discretion.* He then asked that the eighth chapter of the Epistle to the Romans should be read to him, which he seemed to follow with difficulty, and soon after passed from the shadows of time into the presence of what his philosophy and his faith had held to be the only realistics. Of the advice given to Robert Elsmere by the supposed Dr. Grey, we have only to say that we prefer the dicta of Niebuhr and the elder Thomas Arnold, though uttered under different circumstances. It is recorded of the first: The Word made fleshthe divine brought into visible contact with the human and finding an historical embodiment in an individualwas a doctrine that found a warm response in a mind so full of earnest aspirations towards heaven, and at the same time so thoroughly historical in its views of the world. His personal reverence for Christ was a sentiment that deepened with the progress of his life. He once exclaimed in the course of an argument with the (then) King of Prussia: I would lay my head on the block for the Divinity of Christ. Dr. Arnold writes: Strauss writes about history and myths without appearing to have studied the question, but having heard that some pretended stories are mythical he borrows this notion as an engine to help * Mr. Toynbee died soon after, leaving a name not written in water. 16 The late Profe8sor Green of Oa~ford. [Jan., him out of Christianity. But the idea of men writing mythic histories between the time of Livy and Tacitus, and of St. Paul mistaking such for realities! Verily philosophy and criticism have made some progress since the days of Niebuhr and the elder Arnold, but they have not yet made it natural or easy for men to stand on their heads, or to adjust the actual universe to the perspective which this position requires. NOAH PORTER. 1889j Relation of the National Benevolent Societie8, etc. 17 ARTICLE 11.THE RELATION OF THE NATIONAL BE NEVOLENT SOCIETIES TO THE CHURCHES.* THE only true and proper relation of the great Congrega- tional Benevolent Societies to our churches is, in my judgment, an organic relation,a relation which puts these Societies, rep- resentatively, under the control of the churches. The work to be done by these organizations constitutes one department of the divinely legitimate function of the churches, as truly so, as the maintenance of public worship, the observance of the sacra- ments, or the sustainment of the Sunday School. On my first settlement in the pastoral office, forty-seven years ago, I had for my nearest ministerial neighbor on the north, that grand old man, Doctor David Dudley Field,four of whose sons are reckoned among the distinguished men of our country. He was a leader in his day. And, before Doctor Leonard Bacon rose into prominence, he was the highest author- ity in Connecticut upon questions of Congregational polity. His active life covered the period which gave birth to the earlier of these Benevolent Societies. It was by him that my own mind was first directed to the uncongregational principles on which these Societies are based. He, with some of his con- * This paper was prepared, by special request, as an Address to be delivered before the General Conference of the Congregational Churches of Connecticut at its recent annual meeting in Meriden, on the 14th of November last. In the order of exercises, it followed the report of a committee upon the same subject, whose sentiments it supported. As a matter of record, it may be stated, that the Report was heartily ap- proved, and the Resolutions which accompanied it, favoring an organic connection between the Societies and the Churches, were unanimously adopted. In revising the Address for publication, the writer has added several considerations bearing upon the subject, which, in consequence of having been limited to twenty minutes in the delivery, he had been obliged to omit. A few other slight changes have been made. The National Benevolent Societies, whose relation to the Churches is here discussed, do not include such societies, as the American Bible So- ciety, which are constructed upon a Union basis, but only those which are supported almost exclusively by Congregationalists, and regarded as belonging to the Congregational denomination. voL. xiv. 2

1889j Relation of the National Benevolent Societie8, etc. 17 ARTICLE 11.THE RELATION OF THE NATIONAL BE NEVOLENT SOCIETIES TO THE CHURCHES.* THE only true and proper relation of the great Congrega- tional Benevolent Societies to our churches is, in my judgment, an organic relation,a relation which puts these Societies, rep- resentatively, under the control of the churches. The work to be done by these organizations constitutes one department of the divinely legitimate function of the churches, as truly so, as the maintenance of public worship, the observance of the sacra- ments, or the sustainment of the Sunday School. On my first settlement in the pastoral office, forty-seven years ago, I had for my nearest ministerial neighbor on the north, that grand old man, Doctor David Dudley Field,four of whose sons are reckoned among the distinguished men of our country. He was a leader in his day. And, before Doctor Leonard Bacon rose into prominence, he was the highest author- ity in Connecticut upon questions of Congregational polity. His active life covered the period which gave birth to the earlier of these Benevolent Societies. It was by him that my own mind was first directed to the uncongregational principles on which these Societies are based. He, with some of his con- * This paper was prepared, by special request, as an Address to be delivered before the General Conference of the Congregational Churches of Connecticut at its recent annual meeting in Meriden, on the 14th of November last. In the order of exercises, it followed the report of a committee upon the same subject, whose sentiments it supported. As a matter of record, it may be stated, that the Report was heartily ap- proved, and the Resolutions which accompanied it, favoring an organic connection between the Societies and the Churches, were unanimously adopted. In revising the Address for publication, the writer has added several considerations bearing upon the subject, which, in consequence of having been limited to twenty minutes in the delivery, he had been obliged to omit. A few other slight changes have been made. The National Benevolent Societies, whose relation to the Churches is here discussed, do not include such societies, as the American Bible So- ciety, which are constructed upon a Union basis, but only those which are supported almost exclusively by Congregationalists, and regarded as belonging to the Congregational denomination. voL. xiv. 2 18 Relation of the National Benevolent [Jan., temporaries, clearly foresaw and predicted that the time was not very far distant, when these principles would assert them- selves offensively and injuriously. The views which I advo- cate, therefore, were not suggested by a present theological emergency. They are not new. They are as old as these Soci- eties. They were earnestly advocated in a report made to the General Association of Connecticut by a Committee of which I had the honor to be the chairman, sixteen years ago. They are as old, I may say, as Congregationalism itself. And it is in the name and behoof of Congregationalismthe polity of the New England Fathers, and of the apostolic churchesthat I undertake this discussion. A fundamental inquiry is: What, in respect to benevolent Christian work, is the prime design of the organization of the local churchwhich is the only organized church known to Congregationalismthe church in Philippi, for example? Is it not to comliine and concentrate all the Christian elements within its sphere of activity in that city, into itself, as a corpo- rate un4y, for the greatest possible efficiency in doing good? These elements thus unified become a co6rdinated active body of which Christ is the head and the Holy Spirit the organizing life; or, to change the figure, a covenanted band of inspired workers with God and for God. A church is thus instinct with a divine life and power, whether it expends its forces upon the local community, or upon some outside field, as when the Church of Antioch, single-handed, sent forth Paul and Barna- bas upon their evangelizing tours; or as the Church of Pastor Harms at Hermannsberg established large and successful mis- sions in Africa; or as recently, the Berkeley Street Church, Boston, proposes to commission one of its members to labor in Japan, or some other Asiatic field. Suppose now, that the Christian elements in Philippi pro- pose to unite with those in Thessalonica, and in Bera, and in the other cities of Macedonia, where the Gospel has gained a footing, for systematized permanent work, on a large scale, in outside mission felds,Would it accord with the Scriptural idea, for a few believers from Philippi, and a few from each.of the other cities of the province to organize themselves into an association for this purpose, without seeking the authorization 1889.] 8ociet~es to the Churches. 19 or even the approval of the several churches? Suppose that such au association should issue a circular of this tenor: Dear Brethren of the ChurchesWe have taken it upon our own responsibility to organize The Macedonian Missionary Society. We are prepared to establish and conduct missions among the unevangelized peoples of this province, and in foreign parts. We ask you therefore, to furnish us with laborers, to forward contributions to our treasury, and to give us your sympathies and prayers. We beg leave to assure you, that we, associated as individuals, can do this work a great deal more efficiently, more wisely and more successfully than you, as Churches, can do it. What would these churches have said to have seen their church-life thus ignored and overridden? What would Paul have said, to have seen these focal organized centers of Christian light, which he had set up in obedience to the Masters will, held so cheap and obscured? No; this is not the divine order, nor the method of Christianity. These require that the local churches enter into such an association as integers, representa- tively, at least. No other form of association does due honor to the church, as Christ designed it, or brings it into so close relations to its own appointed work. No other so fully develops the concentrated power latent in it as a divine organism, and so stimulates the growth of its graces. Let the unscriptural individualism~, which now prevails in our great benevolent so- cieties, be carried out consistently and universally into all our other Cbristian relations, and it is questionable whether Chris- tianity, as represented by Congregationalism, would survive the experiment for a century. It would disintegrate us. And I have not a doubt, but that the principal reason why Congrega- tionalism has lagged so far behind other denominations in nu- merical strength in this country is, that we haoe sacrificed the church idea to this exaggerated individualism. Individualism has its place,and a very important one,in Christian work, as it stands related not only to private spheres of personal activ- ity, but to co~$peration with others, wherever circumstances call for it. But, if we would bring the full power of Christianity into action on any large scale for the extension of Christs king- dom, we can do it only through the principle of concentration as divinely embodied in church organization, and in the unity of covenanted Christian fellowship. 20 Relation of the National Benevolent The history of Congregationalism in New England reads us a serious and instructive lesson. Not resting satisfied with her simple church-polity, framed out of the word of God by the fathers, as distrustful Israel of old sought help from Egypt on one side and from Assyria on the other, so she has leaned on extraneous supports to remedy supposed defects in this polity. She at first courted connection with the State in foolish imita- tion of the Church from which she came out. She then set up over the financial affairs of her churches Ecclesiastical Socie- ties. which not seldom abused their trusts, and, in many cases, foisted heterodoxy into her pulpits, corrupted her doctrines, and drove her children out from their sanctuaries and their liv- ings. She darned with a half-fledged Presbyterianism, under the name of Consociation, which established stated and authoritative courts of judicature over her churches. She gave her adherence to a Plan of Union with a strong National Church, through which she lost the most valuable portion of her rightful western domain; and having on her side all the advantages of early occupation, a godly ancestry, superior intel- ligence, and large wealth, she has shrunk to the dimensions of one of the smaller tribes of Israel. And now, notwithstanding all this disastrous experience, she wakes up to two amazing facts, that almost unwittingly she has committed her great be- nevolent work, for the doing of which her church organizations were in large part designed, into the hands of independent and irresponsible outside bodies, and, that she herself is declared utterly incompetent for its management. It must however be acknowledged, that, though she has been a dull scholar, Congregationalism is wiser than she once was in respect to the several points just named, except the last,a point which it is to be hoped will not long remain an exception. She has learned, that the being ousted from her old position, as the Standing Order in the State, has been an untold blessing in- stead of a calamity. She has learned that the churches can manage their own temporalities, quite as well, and perhaps a little better, without the appendage of Ecclesiastical Societies. And time has taught her that Consociationism is a foreign ex- crescence happily sloughed off. She used to accept it as a maxim, that New England was her 1889.1 Societie8 to the Churche8. 21 proper heritage and home, and that, in communities west of Byram river, she was an impertinent intruder, and could never flourish. Bnt already she has discovered, that her western pos- sessions are promising to become, in extent and worth, the rivals of those at the East. And further, when, within twenty or twenty-five years, State Conferences and Associations repre- senting the churches, began, in the older States, generally to supersede the old ministerial bodies, and especially when the National Council was organized, there was aroused a feeling of jealousy lest the autonomy of her churches would be interfered with, and the alarm cry of centralization~~ was heard. But she has found that this change has contributed rather to her strength, and it is seen that, with the proper safeguards, asso- ciated action on a large scale, through representatives of the churches, is as germane to her polity, and as safe, as under other systems of church order. But perhaps it will be said, that Boards, appointed by the churches or their representatives, to do the benevolent work of the churches, would, in order to their efficiency, require a larger liberty of action than is allowed to our State Ecclesias- tical bodies or to our National Council, and therefore, that they would be more likely to become a source of mischief in our denomination, through their necessary assumption of authority, than in National Churches. But their discretionary power may be so clearly defined and limited as to constitute no ground of apprehension, especially so, as their doings would statedly come under review by the representatives of the churches. And it would certainly seem, that on the score of the assumption of au- thority, there is more security for the rights of the churches in a body responsible to the churches, than in one which is in- dependent and irresponsible. If anything further needs to be said to prove the feasibility and safety of bringing our Benevolent Societies under the con- trol of the churches, I point with confidence to the methods of our Baptist brethren, who constitute the straitest sect~~ of Congregationalists. Their Missionary Union~~ is now in its seventy-fourth year, and is steadily growing stronger. It elects a Board of seventy-five managers,to hold office for three years,one-third of the number annually, which in turn chooses 22 Relation of the National Benevolent [Jan., the Executive officers. While I do not, in all respects, regard its Constitution as a model, thus much can be said of it, that it is a body strictly representative of the Baptist Churches and denomination. And if any serious difficulties have at- tended its workings, or any dangers have accrued therefrom to the churches, the fact has not yet come to light. It has proved itself a mighty power for evangelization, and has done its work grandly and successfully. The truth is, that as Congregationalists, we hav9 very little of what may be called a church-consciousness, and therefore very little e~9prit-de-corps. For reasons which are patent, large numbers of our leading men can hardly tell why they are Congre- gationalists rather than Methodists or Episcopalians, except that it is a matter of taste. For the want of the requisite positive teaching, our young people grow up with the idea, received almost as a Scriptural maxim from their elders, that it is a mat- ter of indifference what church they belong to, provided only that they make a public profession of their faith, and live up to it. The result has been and is now, that our Eastern Con- gregational parishes are foraging and recruiting grounds for proselyters of every name. In marriage connections between our church members and those of churches of other denomi- nations, it is accepted as a matter of course that the Congrega- tionalist must yield to the choice of the other party, whether husband or wife, whose plea is deemed conclusive, Oh, you know I can not leave my own church. I have been told that Pastors of these other churches have sometimes advised their young people to seek matrimonial alliances with Congregation- alists for the end of denominational enlargement. The com- pliment thus paid us is rather too dearly bought. But to return more directly to our subject: There is no pre- tence that onr National Benevolent Societies are the creations of the churches. The American Missionary Association gives delegates of churches the rights of membership at its meetings. But this concession amounts to little or nothing, as touching the management of the Association. It is a pleasant compliment. With this seeming exception, the Societies acknowledge no di- rect responsibility to the churches and are as entirely indepen- dent of their control as is Harvard University; while at the 1889.] Societie8 to the Churchee. 23 same time, they are dependent on the churches for supplies, as the University is not. The churches, as the divinely estab- lished agencies for associated benevolence, are ignored, unless it be under the stress of appeal for pecuniary contributions. Take as an example of a class, The American~ Home Miis- 8ionary Society. It is an exceedingly unpleasant service which the cause of truth seems to demand,to criticise,even as to its outward form, a Society so dear to the friends of Christ as this. But on examination, we find it so loosely jointed that it is a wonder how it holds together. We cannot but think that some constitutional change is needed. Its Constitution does not re- cognize any such entity as a Christian church. It is constructed, in one respect, on the principle of a secular joint stock com- pany. You subscribe or give so much money to our treasury and you are a member of the firm, and have a right to vote, no matter who you are,man, woman, child,Universalist, Catholic, Jew, Infidel. It is a providential marvel that it has not long ago been captured by designing men for a sinister pur- pose. A meeting of the Society, as such, composed as it is of tens of thousands of members, is an impracticability. If gathered together in New York Central Park, it would be only a saintly mob, incapable of doing business. Membership is practically a farce. The consequence has been, that its man- agement has undesignedly, and indeed necessarily, fallen into the hands of its officials, and a small fraction of other mem- bers, who have happened to come together at the annual meet- ings to pass upon its doings, and elect the President and Vice- Presidents, and the Executive officers. Good and faithful men in the administration of their trusts have they proved them- selves to be,not self-assertive, but wisely careful to avoid con- flict with the rights of the churches. Still, there is serious cause for anxiety. Immunity from peril in the past gives no promise of security in the future. This honored and beloved Society belongs to the churches, and they ought to have it in possession, that they may breathe into it their own church-life. Its position, in respect to polity, should not be simply negative. It should be brought into symmetrical relations to our churches, and thus become Congregational, both in its structure and its moral influence. 24 Relation of the National Benevolent Contrast now with this Society, The American Board of Commiseioner8 for Freign iIhs8wn8. If one is a good model for a Missionary Society, the other must be a bad one; for they are antipodal in structure. If the former is loosely jointed, this latter is compactly stilf and strong, a self-perpetuat- ing close corporation. If the one is deficient in centralized power, the other bristles with authority, claiming and exercis- ing ecclesiastical functions in a way that trenches upon the pre- rogatives of the churches. The full rights of membership are, in the one case, put upon the market for sale at a given price. In the other, these rights are granted only to a select few, who are chosen, not upon nomination by the churches, whose work, as proxies, they are doing, but by those who at the time hap- pen to belong to the privileged circle. In our impatience, we sometimes visit upon the heads of the members and officers of the Board, our resentment at the friction occasioned by their acts. But so far as these brethren are concerned, no better men can be found. They are the elect of our churches. It is the syctem which is mainly at fault, and for which these brethren are not responsible. The relation which they sustain to Christs churches, as being above them, is what violates our sense of Christian propriety. Let the Board be brought into organic and responsible relations to the churches, and the disturbing and chafing element will be in large part eliminated. A bi- cyclist, to whom was given the privilege of the inside track on a city sidewalk, would quite certainly collide with and hurt some- body, notwithstanding the excellence of his character. He is out of his place. So a missionary board which is out of its proper relations to the churches, whose organ it proposes to be, can hardly avoid collision with them. So far as the Prudential Committee of the Board have been subjected to criticism for asserting their authority, independ- ently of the churches, though they may not always have been wise in their manner of doing it, they have not, so far as I can see, exceeded their chartered and constitutional prerogatives. If now the Board, without a resort to abrupt revolutionary meas- ures, can become organically connected with the churches, as already suggested, representing them in its membership and owning its responsibility to them, we see not why there should 1889.] Societiec to the Churchee. 25 be any friction in its movements. The tremendous pressure which is borne by a few men at the missionary rooms will be shared by the entire Congregational body, and this Society, earliest in its organization of the entire sisterhood, and richest in its traditions, will firmly hold the churches to itself, not merely as its nominal bnt as its real constitnents. At this point, I am asked, were not the fathers who fonnded these societies intelligent Congregationalists? Why then did they, with comparatively so few dissentants, act with snch utter disregard of the principles of their polity in the matter? Sev- eral sufficient answers can be given to this question. In the first place, outside missionary work was a new thinr to them and the application of Congregational principles to associations organized for doing this work had not been thought out and tested by experience. And the very fact, that, as I have shown, they struck so wide of the mark in two opposite directions in organizing our two leading societies proves that the form of organization was largely a matter of accident or of experiment. 2. There was then in existence among Congregationalists, no good ecclesiastical machinery, through which the churches could have elected a representative body to take the responsible management of these societies. We had no State Associations or Conferences, with a single exception, composed of delegates of the churches. Such bodies, all but one, were made up of the ministerial element. 3. The churches, as such, were apathetic on the subject of missions. Any appeal to them to organize societies for outside mission work would probably have met with no favorable response. ilence, if anything was to be done, it must be done by individuals alive with the zeal of missions: and 4, In organizing our earlier societies, we were partners with Presbyterians, and, in one of them, with mem- bers of both the Dutch and German Reformed Churches. Of course in such a partnership, all peculiarities of church polity were held in abeyance. At the present time, however, not one of the four specified reasons exist, nor any other respectable one, for the continuance of our anomalous individualistic methods. Our two-faced, self- contradictory system has been fully tested and has proved its inconsistency in both directions, with our polity. Ecclesiastical 26 Relation of the National Benevolent [Jan., bodies fully representing the churches are now at the flood-tide of their life and activity. The churches are wide awake to the claims of mission work. And lastly, our brethren of other names have bidden us an affectionate good-bye, to do church- wise what they unsatisfactorily did in partnership with us out- side of their respective churches. Here let us take note of the fact, that we are, at the present time, just where we were when these Presbyterian and Re- formed brethren went out from us,left by the receding tide stranded high and dry, constitution-wise, upon the neutral shore of the old Union basis. They have been wise enough to mould their charitable agencies in conformity with their respec- tive principles of church-order. We, on the other hand, have neglected to adjust our benevolent work to the new conditions, and thus to make it accordingly fit into our church-life. For this reason,it is not brought so close to us that it is distinctly recognized as our own proper work. The impression produced is, that the work belongs to the societies more especially than it does to the churches. And hence it is prosecuted at great disadvantage. We count the State, the Family, and the Church as divine institutions, each filling a distinct and im- portant place in our complex social life, and each competent to meet its peculiar obligations. We cannot, therefore, see why the Church, any more than the State or the Family, needs the intermediary aid of independent voluntary associations for the fulfilling of its proper mission. To assert that it does, is it not to hold it in disparagement as an example of a divine failure? But I am reminded, that these societies receive many donations from individuals outside of the churches; and I am asked, whether, as a matter of equity, these givers should not have a share in the administration? I ask in reply would the Baptist Churches, or the Methodist Church, or the Episcopal Church, regard it as a demand of equity, that they give to individual donors to the treasury of their respective Boards of Missions, without regard to their church relation, the rights of membership in matters pertain- ing to the election or action of those Boards? Is it to be sup- posed, that the Centurion of whom the Jews in Capernaum said, he loveth our nation and hath built us a synagogue~ was 1889.1 Societies to the Churches. 27 rewarded, or expected to be rewarded, with a voice in the management of the business of the synagogue? If some liberal man aids a feeble church, does he by that gift buy the privilege of taking part in the direction of the affairs of that chnrch? If individuals, apart from the proper church collections, give to one of our benevolent societies, ont of love to the cause which the society is aiming to promote, is it not a secular degradation of the gift to offer to pay them with official position, or even with the prerogatives of a voting membership? They may, if they so choose, designate the particular object to which they would have the money applied. But I do not believe that any intelligent giver would ask any surer guarantee of fidelity in the use of his money, than that the management is entrusted to the elect representatives of our churches. Should we wake up to-morrow morning and find that, by some Vesuvian catastrophe, all our existing benevolent societies, the American Board, the American Home Missionary Society, and all the rest, had sunk irrecoverably out of sight, please tell me, how we should go to work to replace them? Would it be done by one little company of men, gathering, on their own individual responsibility, at the pastors study in Farmington and organizing one society; another, gathering at the Bible House in New York, and organizing a second; and still another, gathering at the Missionary Rooms in Boston, and organizing a third? By no manner of means! There is but one possible way in which it could be done rightly and satis- factorily, and that is through the authorized action of the State Ecclesiastical bodies which represent the churches, or of the National Council. Is it wise to wait for a catastrophe to compel us to do what should be done voluntarily and with a cheerful harmony? Professor Alexander Johnston of Princeton College, in his recent mstory of Connecticut, in speaking of our National Federal Constitution, thus expresses himself: It is hardly too much to say, that the birth of the Constitution was mainly the grafting the Connecticut system of govermnent on the stock of the old Confederation. The self-government and equality of each town, in the Connecticut system, was the pattern after which the United States Senate was constituted, each State 28 Relation of the National Benevolent Societies, etc. [Jan., being in that body equally represented. If now in 1787, Con- necticut presented a model worthy to be copied in the framing of our National government, Connecticut in 1888 can show as good a model for the reconstruction of our National Benevolent Societies. The Missionary Society of Connecticut, whose beginnings date back nearly a century, is that model. The churches represented in this General Conference manage it through Directors chosen by the Conference. I need not tell you with what wisdom, efficiency and economy its work has been done, nor how dear it is to the churches. If now, by the application of the same principle, we can manage our National Benevolent Societies, through men chosen by our several State Conferences or by the National Council, we shall achieve a result quite as important to our churches, as was the change of the old Articles of Confederation for the Federal Consti- tution, to these United States. In conclusion: The result towards which this discussion has been aiming, and to which the truth and Providence of God seem to conduct us, may be comprehensively expressed in the following terms: While we render all due honor to the Chris- tian foresight, faith, and courage manifested in the founding of our INational Benevolent Societies, and while we gratefully recognize the rare fidelity with which their affairs have been administered, the time has come, when they should, by the requisite changes in their structure, be brought into organic connection with the churches, and so become the appropriate and responsible agencies, through which the churches, as being Congregational in form, may do their appointed work for the worlds evangelization. A. S. CHESEBROUGH. Saybrook, Conn. 1889.] Suggest~vene88 in Art. 29 ARTICLE 111.SUGGESTIVENESS IN ART. THOSE people who go out into the roadways of art crying Haro! Haro! in the name of realism would certainly gain their cause could numbers alone give them a verdict. For to say that the present tendency of the masses i& toward the realistic side of life and art is but to state a trite axiom. We have about us on every hand the evidence of its truth. The age in which we live, dubbed Positive by Comte, has lost none of its positivism with his followers, but on the contrary has added to itself some latter-day exactness. So to-day we hear of innu- merable exact sciences established by exact thinkers whose one aim is to get at the truth. This is quite as it should be; for the proper aim of science is to discover and establish truth. But outside of the exact thinkers are a great many people who, burdening their minds with no great problems of moment, fancy they like truths and realities because these are en rapport with the time, and for the further reason that whatever is true must necessarily be good for ones mental digestion. Truth be- ing a very convenient pair of scales wherein things may be weighed one is not surprised to find it used for many things outside of the sciences. The arts are put in the balances and we hear great talk of realistic painting, life-like sculpture, and scientific poetry. Doubtless when the exact thinkers have time to turu their minds upon it we shall hear somewhat of an exact music and a positive drama. The inclination is that way. This is not quite as it should be; for the expressive arts have to do with the realm of the imagination, and their province is to please by stimulating the imagination of the beholder. They are not in any sense simple statements of truths or facts. But it is not strange that people of to-day should demand an art of facts. The age, as already observed, is prosaic, scien- tific, realistic. The idealist is scouted at as a relic of specula- tive days; the romantique has received his death wound at the hands of Mr. Howells; and the old-time poetwell he is con- sidered quite a good joke all around. The populace, always

1889.] Suggest~vene88 in Art. 29 ARTICLE 111.SUGGESTIVENESS IN ART. THOSE people who go out into the roadways of art crying Haro! Haro! in the name of realism would certainly gain their cause could numbers alone give them a verdict. For to say that the present tendency of the masses i& toward the realistic side of life and art is but to state a trite axiom. We have about us on every hand the evidence of its truth. The age in which we live, dubbed Positive by Comte, has lost none of its positivism with his followers, but on the contrary has added to itself some latter-day exactness. So to-day we hear of innu- merable exact sciences established by exact thinkers whose one aim is to get at the truth. This is quite as it should be; for the proper aim of science is to discover and establish truth. But outside of the exact thinkers are a great many people who, burdening their minds with no great problems of moment, fancy they like truths and realities because these are en rapport with the time, and for the further reason that whatever is true must necessarily be good for ones mental digestion. Truth be- ing a very convenient pair of scales wherein things may be weighed one is not surprised to find it used for many things outside of the sciences. The arts are put in the balances and we hear great talk of realistic painting, life-like sculpture, and scientific poetry. Doubtless when the exact thinkers have time to turu their minds upon it we shall hear somewhat of an exact music and a positive drama. The inclination is that way. This is not quite as it should be; for the expressive arts have to do with the realm of the imagination, and their province is to please by stimulating the imagination of the beholder. They are not in any sense simple statements of truths or facts. But it is not strange that people of to-day should demand an art of facts. The age, as already observed, is prosaic, scien- tific, realistic. The idealist is scouted at as a relic of specula- tive days; the romantique has received his death wound at the hands of Mr. Howells; and the old-time poetwell he is con- sidered quite a good joke all around. The populace, always 30 Sugge8t~venes8 ~n Art. [Jan., cursed with a want and possessed of a longing for exact knowl- edge quite worthy of our first parents, calls out for truth. And they have ithave it in excellent form at that. The modern poet, in perfect conformity with the demand for greatness in little things, does not ascend the brightest heaven of invention, but, on the contrary, like the Pen descends to an earthly love. He pitches his tent in the valley and begins to dissect the wind, the rain, the light, the daisy, the blade of grass at his feet, the minds of the people about him. His researches, remarkable for their subtle analyses and pretty conceits, find vent in verse of polished form and of scientific veracity. The novelist rather leads the poet in minuteness of description. The society talk at an afternoon tea; the motives inducing a heroine to accept an offered love or shun a great temptation; the glare of a ball room, the flash of diamonds, the sheen of satin; a description of natures face on a June day; mountain life in Tennessee; or boulevard life in Paris are all set forth with realistic fidelity and not without skill of handling. But it is the painter after all to whom people look for absolute truthfulness. If an audience becomes weary it can skip along bits of realism in poetry and fiction, but in painting it insists upon it that nothing shall be omitted and everything shall be realized. The great number of people understand painting to be an imitation of nature, and so the reasoning is, naturally enough, the closer the imitation the better the art. What wonder then that the artist paints a sportsmans outfit on the back of a door and spends days re- cording the inscription on a gun-lock, the exact creases in a pheasants foot, or the seams and texture of a shooting coat. What wonder that he paints rugs, bronzes, china, and Second Empire furniture to be picked up; that his open sea shows a myriad of tiny waves reflective of the sky; that his people all walk out of their canvases; that his heads realize wrinkles and eye lashes; that his trees show each individual leaf. He as- sures us, as all realists do, that he speaks truth, and so he does; yet somehow we get little satisfaction out of his art. We won- der how it is all done, but our wonder is that of a child at a jugglers trick. The mind is perhaps astonished at the count less touches of the brush as the child by the conjurers leger de main, but there is no a~sthetic pleasure to be derived from such 1889.1 & Sugqe8tivenes8 in Art. 31 art. The poem, the novel, the painting, none of them touches us profoundly. And why is this since they are all so very true, so realistic? For that very reason; they are nothing bnt trnth. The element of imagination is wanting in both the object and the subject. There is no suggestion of anything that may stir the mind of the beholder. We have before us a mechanical problem of truth submitted to the intellect and appealing in no way to the emotions. In this element of the imagination many observers are lack- ing, like Joe Willet; and, as the elder Willet expressed it, they need their faculties drawed out. One day in the Medici Chapel at Florence I chanced to overhear a party of tourists lamenting the fact that the great marble of Michael Angelo, the Day upon the tomb of Lorenzo, had never been carried to completion. The figure of Night on the opposite side they thought rather good, especially after one of them had read Michael Angelos lines explanatory of it, but the Day had chisel marks in the face, the foot looked as though covered with ice and snow, and there was no titular explanation to it. It was such a pity. Is it then a pity that the sculptor never finished it? I think not. Every additional stroke of the chisel would have detracted from it, every rough edge smoothed away would have carried with it some morsel of strength. As it re- mains to us it is the very embodiment of power. Finish might have ruined it, but it is doubtful if it could have improved it. There like a fallen god he lies half embedded in his matrix of stone. The suggestion of mighty power is given; let the ob- servers imagination do the rest. The half finish, the mystery, the uncertainty give the opportunity. One may fancy as many have done, that the figure symbolizes the loss of Florentine freedom and that the grand captive with his massive brow and sunken eyes half rises wearily to view the morning light shin- ing for him in vain. Again one may think him a new Prome- theus bound to the rock; one of the Gigantes; or perhaps a conquered Titan lying along the hills of Tartarus in the drear twilight brooding in melancholy silence over the loss of Olym- pus. To whatever one may imagine regarding the figure, the element of reserved strength will lend assistance. Cut the cap- tive from his bed of stone and the strength falls short, lacking 32 Sugge8tivene8s in Art. [Jan., the foil of resistance; finish the marble, and an existent fact precludes the possibility of wide imagination. For the same reason one finds it hard to regret that some of the finest Greek marbles have come to us in fragments only. The Venus of Melos with her fine head reveals to us an ahuost perfect beauty; but is the Crouching Venus with her head, arms, and feet gone, and part of her left knee knocked out, less beautiful? The exquisitely modeled torso, the graceful pose, the rhythm of line, the rendering of the flesh raise the mind to a lofty pitch in conceiving what the head should be. Place a head like that of the Medicean Venus upon it and the statue loses; imagine, however, a head of that living beauty which sculptors chisel never yet cut from stone and the statue gains. This is equally true of that marble which I venture to think one of the very greatest that has come to us out of all the past the Samothracian Victory of the Louvre. Headless, arm- less, footless, sustained as by her remaining wings of stone, with the motion of rapid flight still about her, she touches, just alights upon the prow of a ship. How the push of that grand figure up against the wind flutters and strains the delicate dra- pery until the limbs and the torso seem bursting through its folds! How strong must have been the gale beating against the broad bosom and whistling through the mighty wings that required the throwing forward of the upper part of the body to meet it! Who was she, what was she, whence came she? Had she the head of a grey-eyed Athene, calm, majestic, pow- erful in repose; did she hold in her hand the laurel wreath for those who had lately conquered; or was she a War Fury with flying disheveled hair, eyes aflame like a Medusa, and an out- stretched arm and finger pointing the way to battle? One may be pardoned for not regretting the lost head. It might have been insipid, for the Greeks placed the head below the body in importance, and with the actual fact before us there would be no room for the imagination. A handsome, even a superior face would have dragged down the whole marble. Nothing but a head of superlative majesty could crown that faultless figure, and, great as were the Greek artists, it would have re- quired a great god of art such as we have never known to real- ize so high an ideal. Given the figure alone and it kindles in 1889.1 Sugge8ttvene8s in Art. 33 the beholders mind so bright a flame that imagination nobly sees the missing features. For that same imagination can carve and paint in perfection such things as no hand however cun- ning has ever been able to reveal in substance. Here is no quarrel with truth nor for that matter with real- ism except as the latter tends to absolute imitation. True art seldom thrusts forward falsities for purposes of effect; rather does it consider the measure of truth to be used. The colossal Day of Michael Angelo generalizes a large truth; it does not realize small ones. The Samothracian Victory in its present condition tells a half truth; it falsifies nothing. Let the spec- tators imagination supply details if it will; enough for art that it suggests them. And the power of selection as to what shall be told and what shall be left untold characterizes the great artists in all the arts. Your poet of realism is a Doctor John- son sort of a person who hits with his cane every horse post in the street to let you know that it is there; the true poet strikes occasionally but with emphasis. The great master of art, how well he knew the imaginations vulnerable point. The lovers, Lorenzo and Jessica, are out in the evening air; with what consummate skill Shakspeare describes the stillness of the night, the peaceful sky, the shining stars, the whole scene with that one suggestive line: How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank. The landscape appears before one as by magic; the mind is roused by the image and responds to it. Your realist would have put us to sleep with dreary descriptions of grass and groves and gutter guide-posts instead of the moonlight. Here from the same brush again, is a genre painting of the hounds of Theseus to equal a Snyders or a Velasquez: My hounds are bred out of the Spartan kind So flewed, so sanded; and their heads are hung With ears that sweep away the morning dew; Crook-kneed and dew-lappd like Thessalian bulls. Coleridge, too, knew how to accomplish much by slight means, as witness this Turneresque marine (lacking Turners detail) from the Ancient Mariners description of the skeleton ship: voL. xiv. 3 34 Sug~fe8tivene88 in Art. [Jan., The western wave was all aflame. The day was well nigh done. Almost upon the western wave Rested the broad, bright sun; When that strange shape drove suddenly Betwixt us and the sun. And straight the sun was flecked with bars (Heavens mother send us grace!) As if through a dungeon grate he peered With broad and burning face. And here is Byrons ghost portrait of Nimroud as he appears to Sardanapalus seated at the banquet board of Assyrias col- lected monarchs: The features were a giants and the eye Was still yet lighted; his long locks curled down On his vast bust, whence a huge quiver rose With shaft heads feathered from the eagles wing That peeped up bristling through his serpent hair. Devoid of details, utterly lacking in minute finish, yet how quickly the mind grasps the different pictures! The salient features are sketched in bold outlines, the predominant colors laid on with a broad brush; the image is in each case forcibly presented, enough is known. Add minutia~ and the pictures lose, first, by sacrificing the strength of the more prominent features to the less ones~ second, by placing in the object (the pictures) that which should properly remain with the subject (the observers mind). It is not enough that art should be simply a statement of facts; it is not enough that the observer should receive it coldly as such. The first must stimulate; the second must be stimulated. And the imagination of man is easily aroused if properly addressed. It resembles a magazine of powder; one may toss at it sticks and stones, refuse and rubbish, detail and minutiae, and it remains passive, but drop into it a spark of genius and immediately it bursts into a flame of activity. Few had a more happy faculty of calling up a face or a scene before ones mind by a single touch of art than that novelist who has now become a St. Sebastian target for the arrows of the realistsCharles Dickens. It is true he generally seizes 1889.] Sugge8tivene88 in Art. 35 upon a peculiarity which he negatively exaggerates by allowing it to stand alone. That he carries this too far in some cases and thus becomes extravagant may be admitted without in any way shattering the principle of art upon which he works. In Little Dorrit for instance, he wishes to intimate that Monsieur Rigand is a sly Mephistophellan rascal, but he does not go into the mans back history to do it; nor does he dissect IRigauds psychological nature or genealogical record to show the causes impelling him toward evil. He simply takes him seated on a ledge in the Marseilles prison and says of him: When Monsieur Rigaud laughed a change took place in his face that was more remarkable than prepossessing. His mous- tache went up under his nose, and his nose came down over his moustache, in a very sinister and cruel manner. iDoes that not place the foxy, crafty Rigaud instantly before us? In Our iJfutual Friend the few lines descriptive of Rogue Riderhood as he stands in the doorway of the lawyers office to give evidence against Gaffer, rubbing with uneasy hand a wet fur cap against the grain, tell the man and his character better than a chapter of words. In word pictures the artist successfnily catches the minds eye by few but vivid flashes. It is not an easy task, for instance, to imagine the waters of the Nile turned to blood under the outstretched rod of Aaron. We are slow to grasp the scene and not even the ac- count in Exodu8 brings it fully before us. But when Th6ophile Gautier, in Le ]i?oman de la Jifomie, tells us in one sentence of the scarlet waves that broke in pink foam upon the shore, the imagination starts with a sudden bound. If I may be allowed the mixed metaphor that pink foam is the spark in the powder magazine. And again the true artist always induces his audience to meet him more than half way. Like the chil- dren who followed the Pied Piper, they see visions, but the Piper inspires the visions by three notes from a simple cane. Mr. Besant in his Art oj Fiction tells us that when that great master of fiction, Charles Reade, in his incomparable tale of The Cloicter and The hearth, sends Gerard and Dennis the Burgundian on that journey through France, it is with the fewest possible words that he suggests the sights and persons met with on the way; yet so great is the art of the writer, that, 36 Su~jge8tiVeness ~n Art. [Jan., almost without being told, we see the road, a mere rough track, winding beside the river and along the valleys; we see the silent forests where lurk the routiers and the robbers, the cut- throat inn, the merchants, peasants, beggars, soldiers who go riding by; the writer does not pause in his story to tell us all this, but we feel itby the mere action of the piece and the dialogue we are compelled to see the scenery; the life of the fifteenth century passes before us with hardly a word to picture it. I know not why writers, sculptors, and painters should take such pains to omit and to suggest when it is so much easier to fill in and to elaborate unless there be some deep method in it all. Their doing so is not simply trickery as we have been often told; nor is it a shrewd playing with, a baiting of ones imaginative appetite. Rather is it a conscious knowledge of the limitations of artistic power and a recognition that the people for whom art is created have a part to play in its proper under- standing. Art-biography if it were truly written would be one long wail over the unattainable. For never an artist lived whose idea fell not short in realization. The endeavor always plays sad havoc with the conception. The mind roams free; it dwells in a~rial palaces, wraps itself round with golden cloud embroideries, catches strains from the poetry of the gods, listens to the music of the spheres. The hand is shackled by a limit of possibilities; however skilled there is a point beyond which it may not go. The eye sees and the hand reaches up to grasp the soaring beauty, but every restraining touch upon the butter- fly wings brushes their brightest hues away. How peurile the poets thought when he has it pinned down to earth in verse! How insipid compared with his conception is the face showing upon the painters canvas! What else but an recog- nition of the impossible in art ever led Velasquez in his picture of the Crucifixion to half hide the face of Christ under his long, flowing hair? Was not his doing so a further recognition of the possible in the beholders imagination? In these two con- cessions Velasquez proved himself a great artist. He knew there never had been painted a satisfactory face of Christ. Doubtless then as now people found fault with the type and to paint the godlike was impossible. So he painted not the divine 1889.] Sugge8tivene88 in Art. 37 but the purely human, not the living but the dead from which the godlike had flown. It was a shrewd Yelasquez that chose the human nature of Christ instead of the divine; it was a wise Velasquez that half covered from view that human face, leav- ing just enough of it for suggestion; it was a great Velasquez that relegated to each persons imagination the transforming of that human face into one of divinity. It seems a paradoxical statement to say that an artist often gains by what he leaves out, but a moments reflection will bring the general truth home to us even within our own experience outside of the arts. The instances of it are numerous among the painters, though the bold application of it so far as the omitting of half a face as in Velasquez Crucifixion is seldom met with. A modern painter, J. F. Millet, offers an approach to this in his masterpiece, the Sower. The whole picture is rather indefinite in treatmentwhat a realist would call blot- tesque I presume. The foreground is in the dusky shadow of a hill; above the hill is the high light of the evening sky and against this sky appears a roughly treated ox-team. In the foreground with his swinging motion strides the Sower. He is the most finished of any object in the picture, and yet he is only suggestion. Foot, leg, hand, and arm are consciously blurred though well-enough modeled and endowed with great action; the clothes appear coarse though their texture is not actually told; and if one looks up into the face hoping to peer into the eyes and read a character therein he will be dis- appointed. The peasants hat is pulled down low on the head, the forehead and eyes are cast in deep shadow, and the whole face is but a hint, an intimation. But how well it is given! How quick we are to grasp Millets meaning! The sun has gone down but still the Sower works; the sweat and dust of a long day are upon his face and forehead but he heeds them not; he is weary and worn but the long stride never falters, the swinging hand still scatters the grain. What a hard, cheer- less, almost hopeless life is that of the tiller of the fields, and what a hero he is to breast it so nobly! He flinches not under the severity of fate but with sad serious eyes fronts the inevit- able. And who heeds while he struggles for the grudged existence? The children hunger, the wife weeps, the man 38 Suggest iveness in Art. rJan., sighs, but the great world rolls on unmoved. There is a wealth of poetry to be gotten from the subject, yet it is not all in the picture; we come to know the meaning of toil and sorrow and yet Millet tells us but a part of it. The poetry is somewhat in our own minds; Millets task was to touch it into life by the suggestive means of form and color. He never thought to tell us exactly what he himself thought of the peasant; he did not eliminate the mystery by detail, nor crush out the viewers imagination by realistic facts; he told a subtle half truth and left the other half to be supplied by the spectator. How puerile and unsatisfactory is exact art in comparison with suggestive art is shown in the products of those young Parisian imitators of Millet who are to-day painting the sabot- shod peasantry of France. Almost any one of the imitators is a better technician than Millet and it is not by virtue of more skillful fingers that Millet is superior. Their line and color and texture and light are oftentimes beyond criticism, and they paint the peasantry in the open fields quite as honestly as did their master; but somehow their pictures do not give us as much pleasure. We settle the matter in our own minds by saying They have not Millets genius ; but that, I opine, is only another way of saying They have not Millets poWer of suggestion. They paint well but they paint too much; they present us with encyclopedic facts the truth of which we admit and then pass on having no food for further thought or stimulant for the imagination. A different style of treatment from the modern Parisians, a style similar to that of Millet, marked the products of the FontainebleanBarbizon landscapiststhose discoverers whom the world of art so persistently misunderstood and whom the world of exact thinkers does not now believe in. To the real- ist a landscape by Corot is an enigma. He declares that it is not true, by which he doubtless means that it is not exactly true, or the whole truth. He cannot understand why Corot does not make an inventory with a paint brush of all the leaves on a given tree, of all the blades of grass on a given fore- ground, of all the rocks on a given hillside. The realist is after truth, but Corot is after beauty and so he sweeps away the leaves, and grass, and petty minuthe with a large brush and 1889.] Su~1ge8tivene88 in Art. 39 calls us, by the absence of distracting details at the sides, to look up at the central beauty of light. And this is so essen- tially Shakspearian in conception and execution that I may be allowed to quote again that line from the Jllerckctnt of Venice: How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank. The dramatist it will be observed fixes attention on the moon- light, that chief feature of night, and without another word the whole landscape rises before us. This is precisely what Corot does. He makes us see the light alone, leaving the trees, the grass, and all that to our imagination. Corot was Shakspearian enough to seize upon the all-pre- dominant feature of landscape, light, and for that reason if for no other he was the greatest landscape painter of his age. His masterpieces, like the Orpheus and the Danse des Amours, are considered masterpieces almost solely because of their emphasis of light, and when, as in some of his works, he sinks down to the emphasizing of air or foliage as the leading features his art loses proportionately. Rousseau was in many respects a better technician than Corot, but he was not so singular in aim nor so lofty in conception. The solidity of the earth, the vol- ume of foliage, the color effects of the clouds were his themes, but treated in a broad manner never detailed, except in his earlier and poorer works, and always full of suggestion. Diaz in reflected light and the color of the foliage, Daubigny in grey tone and atmosphere, IDecamp in warmth of color and light, Dupr6 in stormy skies, are all so many instances at hand showing a similarity of treatment if a difference of theme. Each one suggests the sub-features by intensifying the main features; none of them fritters away strength in an attempt to rival the work of a photographers camera, or pays much atten- tion to supernumeraries when more important actors are upon the stage. It requires your modern realist to give the mole hill as high a value as the mountain; to weary us with a bur- den of geographical and botanical statistics; to stuff us like roast turkeys with bread and butter lawns, sage and caraway- seed foliage, and onion-skin skies. The great French land- scapists whom I have named used the forms of nature in a more effective manner. They all understood the meaning of 40 Suqge8tivene8s in Art. [Jan., dramatic effect, they all knew how to sacrifice the less to the greater, and they all knew what to leave out as well as what to pnt in. The art of omission is quite as great as that of com- mission. For the pnblic may not object to what it knows nothing abont, bnt it very often objects to what it does know abont. We come now to appreciate the negative value of breadth of treatment which lies not in what is brushed in, but in what is brnshed ont; not in what is accomplished alone, but in what is left unaccomplished. Broad treatment is generally synonymous with snggestive treatment. It annihilates de- tails, concentrates force on general truths, and speaks few but winged words. But it has a positive value which it is proper we should appreciate likewise. Painters have what has been called their different periods of production corresponding to the different ages of their lives. There is the early period when exactness and finish characterize the work and make it hard and unsatisfactory; there is the middle period in which the brush begins to move freer and details do not receive so much attention; and there is the late period in which breadth of handling becomes noticeable, detail vanishes, and the strong features alone remain. The work in the last period of a painters career is generally considered his best, unless it de- generates though haste of the brush or weakness of the mind as, for instance, in Jules Dupr6 and Turner. The French landscapists, whose art we now value so highly, passed through these periods; Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyke, Hals, Ter- borch, Brouwer (I give the names at random for the state- ment is generally true of them all), passed through them; and even if we go back to the Italians we shall find, in a less marked degree, that the art of Michael Angelo, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Titian, Tintoretto, Paolo Veronese is all characterized by a latter-day largeness of view and a compara- tive breadth of handling. This change of style as the painter advances is not due to carelessness or inability, except occa- sionally, for the hand and the eye have become more skilled, are surer and truer, are at their best, and this perfected tech- nique is in itself a source of pleasure. Yet more than to skilled execution is the change due to mental experience which 1889.1 Sugvgestivene88 in Art. 41 teaches men as they advance in years to take broader and loftier views of nature and of life. The trained mind of fifty grasps subjects in the round, in the block, where the untrained mind of twenty frets itself sick over the petty details of a part. It is to make people see subjects in their broader meanings that artists paint them broadly. If one craves detail let his im- agina~ion supply it; put it in the canvas and the eye will never look beyond it. In the Vienna portraits by Balthaser Denner we lose ourselves in wonder over the facial delineation, the wrinkles, the moles, the flesh stains, the hairs; we never think to look for the character of the sitter, and if we did we should not find it. In the Gevartins portrait by Van Dyke in the National Gallery at London, or in the portraits of Rembrandt by himself where he is represented as an old man, we wonder at the marvellous character which is depicted; we never think to look for facial delineation. Which is the more important in portraiture the character of the man or the wrinkles in his face? There is great truth of detail in Mr. Henry P. Smiths mid-ocean picturesthe truth of hammered-silver waves and reflected light; but the artist overlooks in detail that chief feature which Courbet in his great picture of the Wave in the Luxembourg seized upon so triumphantly, the mighty strength of the ocean. The one picture is the greatness of the infinitely little; the other is a little of the infinitely great. Even in genre and still-life pictures there is a difference be- tween a broad and a narrow view of subjects. ilnysum may paint flowers with deceptive drops of water and insects upon the petals, Desgoffe may imitate crystals and bronzes, and Ahna Tadama may realize the stains in a piece of marble; but after all when men like Vollon and Fortuny see these objects in the round and paint them in the bulk they have shown their most salient features and thereby suggested to us their details. In literature there is such a thing as insulting the intelligence of ones readers by offering it too much small knowledge; there is no good reason why the application should not be made to art. Thoughtful students of hooks one generally finds to be men who have a preference for the suggestive writers. The thoughts that simply increase our store of abstract knowledge 42 Sug~estivene& 9 in Art. [Jan., are of small consequence compared with the thoughts that make us think. A page from Emersons E9Ray8 will weigh down in value a dozen pages from the Encyclopedia Britan- nica. Doubtless it will be admitted that this is as true of the poem, the drama, and the novel as of the essay. Is it not equally true of the plastic and the graphic arts? Painters pre- fer the sketch to the finished work for no other reason than that it has the freshness of suggestion. The painter, it may be conceded, has a quicker eye, a keener imagination than the amateur, so that where the sketch finds him at home it may find the amateur far at sea; but surely the latter has some eye, some imagination, though they be not highly skilled, which the painter may address suggestively and not unsuccessfully. That art which leaves us where it found us fulfills no serious mission on earth. A picture may not be able to exalt us to great heights of splendor, it may not music-like rouse an Alexander as with a rattling peal of thunder; but unless some thought in it strikes into fire new thoughts in ns, unless it touches some responsive chord in our nature, un- less it somehow stimulates us with new life and pleasure the painters graceful tracery of form, his brilliant flush of color have been expended in vain. JOHN C. VAN Dvx~. 1889.] The Ethics of Speculation. 43 ARTICLE IV.THE ETHICS OF SPECULATION. THE moral character of speculation is seldom called in ques- tion. Although a certain stigma is often attached to the term speculator, and the general public looks askance at the wholesale transactions in the Exchanges and on Wall street, it is not from any moral disapproval of the practice in itself con- sidered, but rather from personal aversion to individuals who have acquired wealth by this means, and the particular methods which they have employed. Ordinary speculation is sanctioned by law and by the popular conscience. It is accounted as hon- orable as productive trade, and few persons would be re- strained by conscientious scruples from sharing in its profits. As a consequence speculation has come to be recognized as a respectable profession when not accompanied by overt dishon- esty. In every community we may find men who gain a liveli- hood by speculation alone. Besides these are very many repre- sentatives from every class of society and every real or imagin- able profession who invest a part of their surplus earnings in this form of trade. While they continue to devote their chief attention and energy to some productive calling, whether it be the law, or husbandry, or preaching the Gospel, or measuring cloth, as often as they can spare a few dollars, they put it into margins or stocks, or buy a few lots of land in some growing town, or enter the Board of Trade. A very few out of the vast number who thus invest are suc- cessful; and these usually give up their legitimate toil and turn their whole attention to speculation. Others, and many more in number, simply lose what they invest in this way. Still others, being threatened with loss, constantly add to their un- profitable investment with the hope of saving what they have already invested and thus involve their whole business in ruin, or making use of funds not their own become entangled in hopeless defalcation. It is a fact worthy of notice that the majority of our defaulters have been drawn into dishonesty by unsuccessful speculation. With results, however, we have

1889.] The Ethics of Speculation. 43 ARTICLE IV.THE ETHICS OF SPECULATION. THE moral character of speculation is seldom called in ques- tion. Although a certain stigma is often attached to the term speculator, and the general public looks askance at the wholesale transactions in the Exchanges and on Wall street, it is not from any moral disapproval of the practice in itself con- sidered, but rather from personal aversion to individuals who have acquired wealth by this means, and the particular methods which they have employed. Ordinary speculation is sanctioned by law and by the popular conscience. It is accounted as hon- orable as productive trade, and few persons would be re- strained by conscientious scruples from sharing in its profits. As a consequence speculation has come to be recognized as a respectable profession when not accompanied by overt dishon- esty. In every community we may find men who gain a liveli- hood by speculation alone. Besides these are very many repre- sentatives from every class of society and every real or imagin- able profession who invest a part of their surplus earnings in this form of trade. While they continue to devote their chief attention and energy to some productive calling, whether it be the law, or husbandry, or preaching the Gospel, or measuring cloth, as often as they can spare a few dollars, they put it into margins or stocks, or buy a few lots of land in some growing town, or enter the Board of Trade. A very few out of the vast number who thus invest are suc- cessful; and these usually give up their legitimate toil and turn their whole attention to speculation. Others, and many more in number, simply lose what they invest in this way. Still others, being threatened with loss, constantly add to their un- profitable investment with the hope of saving what they have already invested and thus involve their whole business in ruin, or making use of funds not their own become entangled in hopeless defalcation. It is a fact worthy of notice that the majority of our defaulters have been drawn into dishonesty by unsuccessful speculation. With results, however, we have 44 The Ethics of Speculation. [Jan., nothing to do in the present discussion. We are only con- cerned with the fact that the practice of speculation in some form is well nigh universal. Men who pride themselves on their strict honesty, who would not intentionally wrong their fellow men, and who would be ashamed to buy a lottery ticket or stake their money at the gaming table, have no conscientious scruples against speculation. Few persons distinguish between legal and moral right; and in this land there is a tendency to submit all questions to the dictum of the majority. We must remember, however, that questions of right and wrong cannot be decided by a show of hands or weight of authority. These standards are very uncer- tain and changeful. Popular opinion in ancient Sparta de- clared theft to be a virtue, and the same authority in Judea branded Divine goodness a crime. But notwithstanding all the changes of public sentiment, the eternal principles of right and truth have remained the same, and the moral character of every practice or institution must be determined by these alone. When weighed in the balances of eternal justice, speculation is found wanting. Its character will not stand the supreme test. It is a moral wrong. It is in its essential nature opposed to all accepted ethical standards. It stultifles the fundamental principles of right which must underlie all permanent social relations. The speculator is a thief from society. He is a par- asite, living only as he sucks the life blood of another. He is a public malefactor, having no claim to a place in the ranks of honest trade. The business of the speculator has not grown up out of any real or fancied need of society. It is the result of unmitigated selfishness, the reckless haste to be rich. The possibility of acquiring wealth has begotten an intense desire for wealth. The mushroom~~ fortunes so common in a new country have become a snare to the people, and almost every young person cherishes the feverish hope that through some happy circum- stance wealth will come to him much more quickly than it can be earned by ordinary and natural methods. In a land like ours there is much to foster this hope. Our resources are enormous in comparison with our population and they are as yet very imperfectly developed. In them lie untold possibilities of 1889.] 71w Ethic8 qf Speculation. 45 wealth. The discovery of a mine has made many a poor man rich in a day. Petroleum wells have accomplished the same result. Useful inventions have poured money into the pockets of men who were wise enough and fortunate enough to take advantage of the patent laws. The unusual demands created by the late war were a means of bringing wealth to not a few. And so it has often happened that men of no extraordinary ability have, by seizing some great opportunity, leaped at one bound from poverty to luxury in a most unexpected manner and without unusual exertion on their own part. Whenever a fortune is thus suddenly acquired the spirit of emulation is aroused. Hundreds of onlookers become dissatis- fied with the ordinary, slow processes of acquisition. The in- dustry, the unremitting toil, the constant care, and the patient waiting necessary to gain even a moderate competence are scorned in view of the chance to make a fortune in a day. The question arises in every mind One man has done it, why may not all do the same ? With the question comes the deter- mination. In their eagerness they entirely forget the impor- tant relation of quid pro quo, and see only the fortune acquired without labor or waiting. If natural opportunities for acquisition are wanting, they create artificial opportunities. If they cannot make themselves rich by enriching others, they will do it by impoverishing others. In other wordsthey epeculate. Wealth is legitimately gained only by means of production in some form. The discoverer of a mine or of an oil well brings within the reach of men vast stores of wealth which were before unknown and therefore useless; hence he is in reality a great producer and the fortune which he acquires is only a fair return to him for the increase of wealth which he has given to the world. The inventor has become an indirect producer by increasing the producing power of others, if his invention has any real value; hence he also receives only a just return for what he has given to men. The inventor of the mowing machine immeasurably increased the productive power of agri- cultural laborers, and thus fairly earned all the wealth he may have derived from his invention. The same element of pro- ductiveness underlies all legitimate trade. A farmer in the west raises ten thousand bushels of corn. If he finds no market 46 The Ethics of Speculation. [Jan., for it, the greater portion must go to waste. But if another man buys nine thousand bushels and carries it to eastern con- sumers, he has become a producer as really as though he had himself raised nine thousand bushels of corn. The railroad men and all who took a necessary part in conveying the corn from its original producer to the consumer are indirectly pro- ducers, for although of themselves they have produced nothing, they have saved the production of the farmer from perishing and thus being lost to the world. The man who actually buys railroad stocks as a permanent investment becomes a partial owner of the road and the profit which he derives from its reg- ular dividends is legitimate gain, since he makes an equivalent return to society in the productive work of the road. In this way the labor of merchants, bankers and countless other classes of society is accounted productive because it forms a necessary link between producer and consumer and thus adds to the wealth of the world. The result of all truly productive labor is to increase the aggregate wealth of society, and any labor that does not increase or save from loss either the actual wealth or the wealth-producing power of mankind is not in any sense productive. Speculation does neither, but only consumes the wealth of society without replacing a dollar. Again, all legitimate trade is based upon a voluntary exchange of equal values. This implies first of all that both of the immediate parties to the exchange shall derive an equal advantage from it. This is not all, however, for many ex- changes affect not the immediate parties alone, but the com- munity as a whole; and it is just as essential that we leave the treasury of society undisturbed as it is that we deal honestly with a single individual. A man may derive large profits from purely speculative trade while the individual with whom he trades apparently loses nothing. In fact there may be an extended circle of speculative trade in which all parties directly concerned seem to be about equally profited. This is often the case in land spec- ulation. One individual may buy a lot of land at a moderate price and sell it almost immediately at a great advance. The buyer may sell again also at an advanbe; and so the selling may continue till one buys it at a high price for permanent p05- 1889.] The Ethice of Speculation. 47 session, and even the last buyer may feel perfectly satisfied with his bargain, for he may still use the land profitably. There has been no loss but rather a direct gain to each individual having a part in the complex transaction, but in every such case society at large is the loser. Speculation knows no law of fair or equal exchange. It is not exchange at all. It is merely disguised and legalized rob- bery. Its working is wholly in one direction. On one side it is all gain; on the other side it is all loss. Every dollar that the speculator gains represents a dollar or more of loss to some- one, it may be to the other parties directly concerned in the transaction, it may be to others indirectly concerned, it may be the entire community. The paper contracts of the Exchanges are perhaps the most extensive of all speculative transactions. These contracts repre- sent no exchange whatever. They are wholly independent of the element of production. Their fulfilment implies merely the payment of a certain sum of money from one speculator to another for which nothing is given in return. The money may go m either direction with equal propriety, since it is wholly unearned. The direction in which it goes is arbitrarily deter- mined by the fluctuations of the market. The same is trne of stock speculation. So far as the principle is concerned it makes no difference whether speculation is in whole stocks or in margins. The broker who buys a thousand shares of stock in some good railway at par and sells them a week later at five per cent. advance because of a forced rise in the market has no moral right to the profit received. The real value of the stock as represented by the condition and traffic of the railroad remains unchanged. He has not earned the money thus gained, if he has derived a profit of five thousand dollars someone has lost just five thousand dollars plus the waste which inevitably accompanies all such transactions. Again, if I place five hundred dollars in the hands of a broker to be invested in margins, when the transaction is closed if I find that I have gained a hundred dollars, then I know that someone has lost a hundred dollars in addition to various brokers fees and other expenses. When the Bulls and Bears have a skirmish on Wall street and the victors win a million 48 The Ethice of ASpeculation. [Jan., dollars, it does not always follow that their immediate oppo- nents lose a million dollars, but it does follow that somebody has lost it. Usually the loss may be reckoned in small sums invested in margins by traders, clerks, mechanics, and others throughout the country. In its essential nature and mode of operation speculation in all these forms is identical with the lottery and ordinary gamb- ling, only that it is if possible less honest. When money is taken from one individual and given to another, not because he has earned it, but because chance has decreed it, what differ- ence does it make whether the chance is determined by a throw of the dice or the choice of a lucky number, or a movement of the stock market? Is not the moral character of the trans- action the same in either case? In the case of the great specu- lators they are themselves the forces that move the market and determine the loss or gain. Their whole effort and ingenuity is given to the work of circulating false impressions and mislead- ing their opponents as to their real intentions and the actual state of the market. Their action is precisely that of experi- enced and unscrupulous gamblers trying to outwit each other in the keenness of their cheating. What a moral spectacle was presented to the world when, a few years ago, a father and son, both prominent speculators, measured swords in the arena of the stock market. Never were deadly enemies more anxious to deceive one another regarding their movements and intentions. Each taxed his strategic powers to the utmost, and the youth proved a more apt pupil in the art of dissembling than even his doting parent could wish, for he at length succeeded in bleeding the old gentleman to the extent of many thousand dollars. Again, take the case of the land speculator. His business is of the same moral character as that of his brother in the stock market. It depends for success upon an artificial disturbance of the natural laws of trade. He aims not to supply an exist- ing demand, but to create a fictitious demand which he may use for his own profit. He goes to some quiet town, buys up a large tract of land in some eligible locality, and then, by a pro- cess well known to speculators, creates a boom~~ and ~ttracts buyers. In a very short time he sells enough of the land to 1889.] The Ethics of Speculation. 49 give him a rich profit on his investment. Or it may be that he prefers to go to a place where the boom has already been started, and he merely steps into the current and, by skilful pnrchases and sales, canses to pass rapidly through his hands a number of desirable lots by which process he gains many thou- sands of dollars. Now what right has he to the money thus accumu- lated? He has not earned it. He has added nothing to the wealth of the community. The laud is just as it was when he bought it. He may have laid out streets and made some slight improvements, but they are trifling in comparison with the profit derived. He has taken several thousand dollars from the community for which he has made no return. This is obvi- ously unjust, no matter by what process it has been accom- plished. He may say that he has cheated no one, for the pur- chasers have all done as well as himself. They bought the land freely and without any manner of compulsion; therefore the trade is in every way a case of fair exchange. So it seems if we consider oniy the immediate parties to the transaction. But let us look a little further. I buy a lot of land to-day for a thousand dollars. By dividing it into small lots and booming it I sell it next week for two thousand dollars. What have I done? I have taken advantage of an artificially created demand for land to extort from society a thousand dollars for nothing. The individuals to whom I sold the lots may fancy that they made good bargains, and so they may as compared with others; but the community is just one thousand dollars poorer for my transaction. I have drawn a thousand dollars from the worlds store of wealth without returning a cent. Many an American town is suffering to-day from the fearful drain that has been made upon its resources under pretence of stimulating its early growth. Speculation of this sort affects the prosperity of a town much as alcohol affects a sick man, giving an unnatural vitality at the time which must be paid for with interest in the future. Many people fancy that our coun- try is being vastly benefited by the work of speculators in de- veloping our great West and in building up new towns on the frontier. But if a balance sheet could be accurately drawn, it would appear that every dollar of gain from these speculations voL. xiv. 4 50 The Ethics of Speculation. in real estate lias its corresponding dollar of loss in some part of the country. The successful towns have been built upon the ruins of others less successfuL The advancing prices of land in Kansas or California only keep pace with the falling prices in the hill towns of Kew England. The gains of the non-pro- ducing western speculator are accounted for in the scanty liv- ing of the producing farmers and other laborers in the East. From an economic point of view speculation in land or in any other commodity where there is actual ownership and transfer of property, is much less harmful than the paper contracts and speculation in margins, since it is necessarily limited in amount. Ethically, however, there is no difference. Every form of trade whose profits do not represent real earnings but are derived from artificial changes in the market, is morally wrong even though its economic effect be unappreciable. Any person who draws a dollar from the treasury of society without making an equivalent return is dishonest. Every social problem presents two phases, the economic and the ethicaL These are in a sense wholly independent of each other, yet they are always harmonious. That is to say, the eco- nomic effect of a custom or institution cannot be attributed. directly to its ethical character, nor, on the other hand, is its ethical status to be determined by its economic effect alone. Still it is doubtless true in every instance that, in the broadest view, the economically expedient is also the ethically right. Of the two elements the ethical is the more important, since it lies at the foundation of all social relations. INo custom can be beneficial to society, no economic system can be satisfactory, no state of society can be permanently harmonious, that does not rest on a sound ethical basis. Furthermore, any plan for the solution of existing difficulties that takes no account of the ethical principles involved must prove a signal failure. It is of little use to change external forms unless our work goes deeper. To legislate evils out of existence is impossible. Eco- nomic changes and reformatory legislation are of value only when they express a real advance in the moral sentiment of the people. The evils which exist in American society to-day and which cause so much trouble and unrest are not the result of an im 1889.] The Ethice of Speculation. 61 perfect social system merely. They spring chiefly from a lack of true moral principle. The popular conscience is not as keen as it should be, especially in matters where large sums of money are involved. It is difficult to persuade a man that the busi- ness by means of which he has accumulated great wealth is morally wrong. The selfish love of money lies athwart the path of every moral reform and clogs the wheels of human progress. For many years slavery was declared to be a Chris- tian institution, because there was money in it. Hundreds of men will not see the real iniquity of the liquor traffic because they derive a large revenue from it. So it is with speculation. The large fortunes that have been quickly and easily acquired by this form of trade have made men willingly blind to its real character. It has appeared so respectable in many cases as to deceive even the very elect. But the time is coming when this disguise must be removed. The spirit of the age demands it. A moral evil requires a moral remedy. Social changes may accomplish something in this matter; but there must also be a thorough change of moral sentiment. The conscience of the people must be more finely tempered. The work of reform will not be complete till the speculator is degraded from the ranks of honest trade and com- pelled to take his place beside gamblers and other social out- laws. GEORGE H. HUBBARD. 52 Univer8ity Tqpic8. [Jan., UNIVERSITY TOPICS. CLASSICAL AND PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF YALE UNIVERSITY. On November 6th, Professor Reynolds presented a communi- cation on the CLASSICAL AND MODERN TRAGEDY. Greek drama presents many features in marked contrast to mod- ern drama; and since its traditions have been set up by a certain school of dramatists in modern times as a criterion of excellence, an examination of its origin and environment sheds light on the question of what in its form is essential and what incidental. Greek tragedy had its origin in the dithyrambic choruses which were sung in honor of the god Dionysus. Originally, religious in subject and always religious in its outward purpose if not in its inner meaning, it was shielded by religious conservatism from rapid change. Early tradition as well as good taste limited the choice of subject in the main to events in the remote past, at first, to events in the life of Dionysus. Unlike modern poets, the Greeks were not jaded in the search for novel themes. Dif- ferent poets often treated the same subject and even the same poet sometimes wrote more than one play on the same theme. Their work was judged not by the novelty of the theme but by the dramatic garb with which in was invested. The traditional cos- tume, the masks, and the size of the theater which necessitated slowness of utterance, forbade lively action on the stage and pro- duced a certain statuesque effect. The fewness of the actors, which is explained by the origin of the Greek drama, had a very material influence in simplifying the scenes and determining their succession. Each actor generally took more than one r6le. Even the time to make a change of costume had often to be taken into consideration. A certain economy had to be exercised in employ- ing the leading actor, who would perhaps appear in more than one drama in a single day. The constant presence of the chorus forbade any great lapse of

52 Univer8ity Tqpic8. [Jan., UNIVERSITY TOPICS. CLASSICAL AND PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF YALE UNIVERSITY. On November 6th, Professor Reynolds presented a communi- cation on the CLASSICAL AND MODERN TRAGEDY. Greek drama presents many features in marked contrast to mod- ern drama; and since its traditions have been set up by a certain school of dramatists in modern times as a criterion of excellence, an examination of its origin and environment sheds light on the question of what in its form is essential and what incidental. Greek tragedy had its origin in the dithyrambic choruses which were sung in honor of the god Dionysus. Originally, religious in subject and always religious in its outward purpose if not in its inner meaning, it was shielded by religious conservatism from rapid change. Early tradition as well as good taste limited the choice of subject in the main to events in the remote past, at first, to events in the life of Dionysus. Unlike modern poets, the Greeks were not jaded in the search for novel themes. Dif- ferent poets often treated the same subject and even the same poet sometimes wrote more than one play on the same theme. Their work was judged not by the novelty of the theme but by the dramatic garb with which in was invested. The traditional cos- tume, the masks, and the size of the theater which necessitated slowness of utterance, forbade lively action on the stage and pro- duced a certain statuesque effect. The fewness of the actors, which is explained by the origin of the Greek drama, had a very material influence in simplifying the scenes and determining their succession. Each actor generally took more than one r6le. Even the time to make a change of costume had often to be taken into consideration. A certain economy had to be exercised in employ- ing the leading actor, who would perhaps appear in more than one drama in a single day. The constant presence of the chorus forbade any great lapse of 1889.1 University ZIiopic& 53 time to be imagined between scenes; while the added elements of deficient stage machinery and absence of a curtain would make a frequent change of scene jar on the dramatic illusion. The Greek poet therefore had to group the action around one place and one time; whatever else was necessary to the action such as battles, etc., was introduced by means of the reports of heralds, which were an integral part of the drama. The so-called unity of action or arrangement of events in a sequence of cause and effect was perhaps more strictly maintained than in modern times. The paper further pointed out that Aristotle, the acknowledged authority of the French classical school, while he lays especial stress onthe unity of action and mentions the unity of time, no- where alludes to the unity of place. Violations of the unities were then mentioned both in Greek tragedy and in the modern classi- cal and romantic drama. Instances were shown where the French dramatists adhered to the unities and violated all probabilities. In the absence of a chorus the need of a strict observance of the unity of time and place was wanting and the romantic school represented by Shakspeare freely violated both. In the subordination of incident and diction to the central idea of the drama the ancients were manifestly superior. Attention was called to the fact that while Greek plays were composed in the form in which they were acted, modern plays are usually adapted for the stage. The paper closed with a criticism, from the above mentioned points of view, of Shakspeares King Lear and Brownings Best in the Scutcheon. On November 25th, Mr. W. I. Hunt read a paper on WIT AND HUMOR IN HOMER. The epic poem is not naturally witty or humorous, its dignity and sternness preclude small talk. So on Homeric battlefields stern irony and sarcasm are used in mocking an enemy, exulting over a fallen foe, or spurring on a friend. Irony is heightened by intensive particles which make the contrast greater between the speakers real view and his statement, or by weakening parti- cles which state as contingent that which the speaker looks upon as certain. Irony is also indicated by using words of pleasant meaning in a bad sense, or by stating that which is feared as the object of the action. Draw near that you may die ! 54 Univer8ity Tqpics. [Jan., While there is no lack of wit and humor in Homer, many things are treated seriously which we should look upon as absurd. Homeric wit is broad not subtle, objective not subjective. It has to do with external objects and is aimed at definite persons. There is sometimes a humor in the grouping of events, as in the comical scenes in which Aphrodite figures, or in the prize-fight between Odysseus and Irus. Odysseus in the cave of the Cyclops saves his life by a pun. There is more humor in the Odyssey than in the Iliad. In the Iliad the wit is largely irony and sar- casm, for the Iliad is a stern tragedy, while the Odyssey is a novel. The Secretary translated, with comments, Professor Jebbs Greek Ode to the University of Bologna at its Eight-Hundredth Anniversary. Few scholars would attempt to compose an ode of one hundred and fifty verses in Pindaric style, dialect and rhythm. Probably no other living scholar would have been so successful as Professor Jebb. The ode is by no means a cento, yet every stanza contains Pindaric idioms and reminiscences. Some of the most ethereal of Pindars characteristics reappear here. The Greek hexameters, elegiacs, and Sapphic verses which have been composed and published occasionally during the last four centu- ries are all trifling and rude work, when compared with this ode. PHILOSOPHICAL CLUB. The papers presented have been Oct. 23. Science and Theism. Mr. R. Nakashima. Nov. 6. Nature and the Universal in English Poetry. Mr. J. H. Tufts. Nov. 20. Philosophical Basis of Ritschls Theology. Professor Russell. Dec. 4. Hebrew and Greek Conceptions of the Relation be- tween Body and Soul. Mr. F. C. Porter. Dec. 18. Pessimism. Mr. B. M. Wright.

54 Univer8ity Tqpics. [Jan., While there is no lack of wit and humor in Homer, many things are treated seriously which we should look upon as absurd. Homeric wit is broad not subtle, objective not subjective. It has to do with external objects and is aimed at definite persons. There is sometimes a humor in the grouping of events, as in the comical scenes in which Aphrodite figures, or in the prize-fight between Odysseus and Irus. Odysseus in the cave of the Cyclops saves his life by a pun. There is more humor in the Odyssey than in the Iliad. In the Iliad the wit is largely irony and sar- casm, for the Iliad is a stern tragedy, while the Odyssey is a novel. The Secretary translated, with comments, Professor Jebbs Greek Ode to the University of Bologna at its Eight-Hundredth Anniversary. Few scholars would attempt to compose an ode of one hundred and fifty verses in Pindaric style, dialect and rhythm. Probably no other living scholar would have been so successful as Professor Jebb. The ode is by no means a cento, yet every stanza contains Pindaric idioms and reminiscences. Some of the most ethereal of Pindars characteristics reappear here. The Greek hexameters, elegiacs, and Sapphic verses which have been composed and published occasionally during the last four centu- ries are all trifling and rude work, when compared with this ode. PHILOSOPHICAL CLUB. The papers presented have been Oct. 23. Science and Theism. Mr. R. Nakashima. Nov. 6. Nature and the Universal in English Poetry. Mr. J. H. Tufts. Nov. 20. Philosophical Basis of Ritschls Theology. Professor Russell. Dec. 4. Hebrew and Greek Conceptions of the Relation be- tween Body and Soul. Mr. F. C. Porter. Dec. 18. Pessimism. Mr. B. M. Wright. 1889.] Ctwrent Literature. 55 CURRENT LITERATURE. In a little book which hears the title of FROM FLkG TO a lady of southern birth, whose home was in Louisiana at the outbreak of our civil war, tells the story of some of the experiences which she and her husband passed through, as they ran from flag to flag, to Mexico and Cuba, in the search for a place of refuge. The story is told so gracefully, it is so free from all bitterness of spiritthe numberless privations which she endured were borne with such courage, and with such a cheerful spiritthat no one can read the book without admiration for the brave and accomplished authoress. She had been herself present in April, 1860, at the Democratic Convention in Charleston, when one after another of the Southern delegations refused to ratify the adoption of the platform that had been submitted, and filed solemnly out of the hall. She says that leaning over the gallery rail, and carried away by the excitement that prevailed, she saw with unspeakable dismay that her conservative and clear-headed husband, when the other nine delegates from Louisiana marched out, remained seated. What followed is a matter of history. The Con. federacy was born, and the feeling was general throughout the South that a new era of prosperity was to dawn. One of the first events which is described is a flag-raising on her own plantation, which was near Baton Rouge on the Missis- sippi. Her house was full of guests at the time that the Con- federate Congress at Montgomery adopted a device for a flag. Her husband was absent from home. But, on reading the description of the proposed flag, it was at once determined by the enthusiastic visitors at her house that one should be manufactured and unfolded from a staff on the river front. It was soon loosened to the breeze with wild enthusiasm. They danced round and round it; they sang and shouted in very * From Flag to 1~ lag: A Womans adventures and experiences in the South during the war, in Mexico and Cuba. By EuzA MOHATTONRIPLEY. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1889. l2mo, pp. 296.

1889.] Ctwrent Literature. 55 CURRENT LITERATURE. In a little book which hears the title of FROM FLkG TO a lady of southern birth, whose home was in Louisiana at the outbreak of our civil war, tells the story of some of the experiences which she and her husband passed through, as they ran from flag to flag, to Mexico and Cuba, in the search for a place of refuge. The story is told so gracefully, it is so free from all bitterness of spiritthe numberless privations which she endured were borne with such courage, and with such a cheerful spiritthat no one can read the book without admiration for the brave and accomplished authoress. She had been herself present in April, 1860, at the Democratic Convention in Charleston, when one after another of the Southern delegations refused to ratify the adoption of the platform that had been submitted, and filed solemnly out of the hall. She says that leaning over the gallery rail, and carried away by the excitement that prevailed, she saw with unspeakable dismay that her conservative and clear-headed husband, when the other nine delegates from Louisiana marched out, remained seated. What followed is a matter of history. The Con. federacy was born, and the feeling was general throughout the South that a new era of prosperity was to dawn. One of the first events which is described is a flag-raising on her own plantation, which was near Baton Rouge on the Missis- sippi. Her house was full of guests at the time that the Con- federate Congress at Montgomery adopted a device for a flag. Her husband was absent from home. But, on reading the description of the proposed flag, it was at once determined by the enthusiastic visitors at her house that one should be manufactured and unfolded from a staff on the river front. It was soon loosened to the breeze with wild enthusiasm. They danced round and round it; they sang and shouted in very * From Flag to 1~ lag: A Womans adventures and experiences in the South during the war, in Mexico and Cuba. By EuzA MOHATTONRIPLEY. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1889. l2mo, pp. 296.

1889.] Ctwrent Literature. 55 CURRENT LITERATURE. In a little book which hears the title of FROM FLkG TO a lady of southern birth, whose home was in Louisiana at the outbreak of our civil war, tells the story of some of the experiences which she and her husband passed through, as they ran from flag to flag, to Mexico and Cuba, in the search for a place of refuge. The story is told so gracefully, it is so free from all bitterness of spiritthe numberless privations which she endured were borne with such courage, and with such a cheerful spiritthat no one can read the book without admiration for the brave and accomplished authoress. She had been herself present in April, 1860, at the Democratic Convention in Charleston, when one after another of the Southern delegations refused to ratify the adoption of the platform that had been submitted, and filed solemnly out of the hall. She says that leaning over the gallery rail, and carried away by the excitement that prevailed, she saw with unspeakable dismay that her conservative and clear-headed husband, when the other nine delegates from Louisiana marched out, remained seated. What followed is a matter of history. The Con. federacy was born, and the feeling was general throughout the South that a new era of prosperity was to dawn. One of the first events which is described is a flag-raising on her own plantation, which was near Baton Rouge on the Missis- sippi. Her house was full of guests at the time that the Con- federate Congress at Montgomery adopted a device for a flag. Her husband was absent from home. But, on reading the description of the proposed flag, it was at once determined by the enthusiastic visitors at her house that one should be manufactured and unfolded from a staff on the river front. It was soon loosened to the breeze with wild enthusiasm. They danced round and round it; they sang and shouted in very * From Flag to 1~ lag: A Womans adventures and experiences in the South during the war, in Mexico and Cuba. By EuzA MOHATTONRIPLEY. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1889. l2mo, pp. 296. 56 Current Literature. [Jan., exuberance of spirit. The steamers on the river, as they passed, whistled and rang their bells. The passengers and crews cheered and waved to them with hats, newspapers, and handkerchiefs, saluting the first Confederate flag raised on Louisiana soil. But to-day, she says, of all that joyous party, I am, with the exception of my son, then a very small boy, the only one living.~~ All went well for a time, till one magnificant morning in early summer, the whole river, the silence on whose surface had remained now many weeks undisturbed, was suddenly, as if by magic, ablaze with the grandeur of Federal gunboats, and trans- ports with flags and bright-colored streamers flying from every peak, their decks thronged with brilliantly uniformed officers. We stood upon the veranda with streaming eyes and bursting hearts; the gay strains of Yankee Doodle, as they floated oer the waters, filling our souls with bitterness unspeakable, and we watched the victorious pageant until it anchored amid blare of trumpet and beat of drum beside the deserted landing of our dear little city. Now came the battle at Baton Rouge. Breck- enbridge was defeated, and the house and every out-building on the plantation were soon crowded with the terrified population of the city seeking to escape from the bombardment. Her hus- band now found himself in danger of speedy arrest; and, with scarcely time for preparations of any kind, with his wife and children went out from his beautiful home, and commenced those long wanderings which the wife has here described. She says: So I rode away from Arlington, leaving the sugar-house crowded to its utmost capacity with the entire crop of sugar and molasses of the previous year, for which we had been unable to find a market within our lines, leaving cattle grazing in the fields, sheep wandering over the levee, doors and windows flung wide open, furniture in the rooms, clothes, too fine for me to wear now, hanging in the armoires, china in the closet, pictures on the walls, beds unmade, table spread. It was late in the afternoon of that bright, clear, bracing day, December 18, 1862, that I bade Arlington adieu forever It is with regret that we remember that our limits will not per- mit us to follow with even the slightest detail the story of the long journeyings of the little family who had so suddenly found themselves homeless. The story, as we have already said, is one of countless adventures and of great hardships, not only patiently but uncomplainingly endured; and, we must not forget now to 1889.] Current Literature. 57 add, that in all these hardships and disasters that befell them, they were never so cast down that they were not ready Ito seek out and assist with a generosity that seemed unfailing, all who were in greater distress than themselves. And so, with brave hopefulness for themselves, and constant helpfulness for others, the years wore away till the war was over, and then the reader finds in this closing sentence that which still further enhances the respect and admiration with which he has followed the fortunes of this brave Southern woman. She says: Thus faded the Confederacy. We prayed for victoryno people ever uttered more earnest prayersand the God of hosts gave us vic- tory in defeat. We prayed for only that little strip, that Dixie. land, and the Lord gave us the whole country from the Lakes to the Gulf, from ocean to oceanall dissensions settled, all dividing lines wiped outa nnited country forever and ever ! WILLIAM L. KINGSLEY. Buivisn LErrERs.*~We think that we are doing a service to a large number of people by calling attention to three little vol- umes of charming selections from British Letters, edited by Mr. Edward T. Mason. There is not a dull paragraph among all these pages! The author has culled from numberless vol- umes of the letters of British celebrities the very best pas- sages from their best letters, and has grouped them under thirteen different subject-headings in such order as seemed most logical and illustrative. The character of these passages may be gathered from a few of the subject-headings which we note: Manners, Customs, and Behavior : National Traits : Friendship : The Family ~ The Town ~ The Coun- try : Out-of-doors : etc., etc. It should be understood that it has not been the plan of the editor to give whole letters, but he has picked out only the plums from each. We will transfer a small part of one of these plums, which is found in a letter of Norman Macleod, under the sub-heading of Whim and Fancy. The letter was written to his mother on his fifty-sixth birthday. He says: You must acknowledge that you took a very great liberty with a man of my character and position, not to ask me whether I was disposed to enter upon a new and important state of * British Letters, illustrative of Character and Social Life. Edited by EDWARD T. MASON, editor of Humorous Masterpieces. New York: G. P. Putnam s Sons. 1888. Three vols., iGmo. pp. 306, 266, 29~.

1889.] Current Literature. 57 add, that in all these hardships and disasters that befell them, they were never so cast down that they were not ready Ito seek out and assist with a generosity that seemed unfailing, all who were in greater distress than themselves. And so, with brave hopefulness for themselves, and constant helpfulness for others, the years wore away till the war was over, and then the reader finds in this closing sentence that which still further enhances the respect and admiration with which he has followed the fortunes of this brave Southern woman. She says: Thus faded the Confederacy. We prayed for victoryno people ever uttered more earnest prayersand the God of hosts gave us vic- tory in defeat. We prayed for only that little strip, that Dixie. land, and the Lord gave us the whole country from the Lakes to the Gulf, from ocean to oceanall dissensions settled, all dividing lines wiped outa nnited country forever and ever ! WILLIAM L. KINGSLEY. Buivisn LErrERs.*~We think that we are doing a service to a large number of people by calling attention to three little vol- umes of charming selections from British Letters, edited by Mr. Edward T. Mason. There is not a dull paragraph among all these pages! The author has culled from numberless vol- umes of the letters of British celebrities the very best pas- sages from their best letters, and has grouped them under thirteen different subject-headings in such order as seemed most logical and illustrative. The character of these passages may be gathered from a few of the subject-headings which we note: Manners, Customs, and Behavior : National Traits : Friendship : The Family ~ The Town ~ The Coun- try : Out-of-doors : etc., etc. It should be understood that it has not been the plan of the editor to give whole letters, but he has picked out only the plums from each. We will transfer a small part of one of these plums, which is found in a letter of Norman Macleod, under the sub-heading of Whim and Fancy. The letter was written to his mother on his fifty-sixth birthday. He says: You must acknowledge that you took a very great liberty with a man of my character and position, not to ask me whether I was disposed to enter upon a new and important state of * British Letters, illustrative of Character and Social Life. Edited by EDWARD T. MASON, editor of Humorous Masterpieces. New York: G. P. Putnam s Sons. 1888. Three vols., iGmo. pp. 306, 266, 29~. 58 Current Literature. [Jan., existence; whether I should prefer winter or summer to begin the trial; or whether I should be a Scotchman, Irishman, or English- man; or even whether I should be man or woman born; each of these alternatives involving to me most important conse- quences. What a good John Bull I would have made! what a rat- tling, roaring Irishman! what a capital mother or wife! what a jolly abbess! But you doomed me to be born in a tenth rate provincial town, half Scotch, half Highland, and sealed my doom as to sex and country. Was that fair? Would you like me to have done that to you? Suppose through my fault you had been born a wild Spanish papist, what would you have said on your fifty-seventh birthday, with all your Protestant convictions? Not one Maxwell or Buntroon related to you! you, yourself a nun called St. Agnese !and all, forsooth because I had willed that you should be born at Toledo on June 3, 1812! Think of it mother, seriously, and say, have you done to me as you would have had me do to you ~ We stop here with our quotation, though the best part of the letter is yet to come. We will quote again from a letter of Richard Harris Barham: I must tell you one of Moores stories, because as Sir Walter Scott is the hero of it I know it will not be unacceptable to you. When George IV. went to Ireland, one of the pisintry, de- lighted with his affability to the crowd on landing, said to the toll-keeper as the king passed through, Och, now! and his Majesty, God bless him, never paid the turnpike! an hows that? Oh! kings never does; we let em go free was the answer. Then theres the dirty money for ye, says Pat. It shall never be said that the king came here and found nobody to pay the turnpike for him. Moore, on his visit to Abbotsford, told this story to Sir Walter, when they were comparing notes as to the two royal visits. Now, Mr. Moore, replied Scott, there ye have just the advantage of us. There was no want of enthusi- asm here; the Scotch folks would have done anything in the world for his Majesty, butpay the turnpike! Lady Morgan, an Irish lady, writing to a friend, says: I have seen the best and worst of English society; I have dined at the table of a city trader, taken tea with the family of a Len- don merchant, and supped at Devonshire House, all in one day, and I must say that if there is a people upon earth that understands the science of conversation Lxss than another, it is the English. The quick- ness, the variety, the rapidity of perception and impression, which is 1889.] Current Literature. 59 indispensable to render conversation delightful, is constitutionally de- nied to them; like all people of slowly operating mental faculties, and of business pursuits, they depend upon memory more than upon spon- taneous thought. When the power of, and time for, cultivating that retentive faculty is denied, they are then h~bete and tiresome, and when it is granted (as among the higher circles), the omnipotence of the ton is so great that every one fears to risk himself. In Ireland it is quite different; our physique, which renders us ardent, restless, and fond of change, bids defiance to the cultivation of memory; and, there- fore, though we produce men of genius, we never have boasted of any man of learningand so we excel in conversation, because, of neces- sity we are obliged to do the honors of the amour-propre of others; we are obliged to give and take, for thrown upon excitement, we only re- spond in proportion to the quantity of stimulus received. In Eng- land, conversation is a game of chessthe result of judgment, mem- ory, and deliberation; with us, it is a game of battledore, and our ideas, like our shuttlecocks, are thrown lightly one to the other, bound- ing and rebounding, played more for amusement than conquest, and leaving the players equally animated by the game and careless of its results. There is a term in England applied to persons popular in society, which illustrates what I have said; it is he (or she) is very amusing, that is, they tell stories of a ghost, or an actor. They recite verses, or play tricks, all of which must exclude conversation, and it is, in my opinion, the very bane of good society. An Englishman will declaim, or he will narrate, or he will be silent; but it is very difficult to get him to converse, especially if he is a supreme bon ton, or labors under the reputation of being a rising man; but even all this, dull as it is, is better than a man who, struck by some fatal analogy in what he is saying, immediately chimes in with the eternal that puts me in mind, and then gives you, not an anecdote, but an absolute history of something his uncle did, or his grandfather said, and then, by some lucky association, goes on with stories which have his own obscure friends for his heroes or heroines, but have neither point, & flt, humor, nor even moral (usually tagged to the end of old ballads). Oh, save me from this, good heaven, and I will sustain all else beside ! One more quotation we will makefor the benefit of tobacco smokersfrom the letter of an English celebrity, who shall be nameless, who is urging an old friend to visit him in his country home. He says: I am alone. . . . I am wasting my sweetness on the desert airI say my sweetness, for I have given up smok- ing and smell no more I WILLIAM L. KINGSLEY. 60 Current Literature. [Jan., Monniss ATALANTAS RACE, ETc.*~In a study of the Greek myths Ruskin says, You may obtain a more truthful idea of the nature of Greek religion and legend from the poems of Keats and the nearly as beautiful and, in general grasp of subject, far more powerful recent work of Morris, than from frigid scholarship, however extensive. Independent of the influence of Ruskins opinion, for a course in English to be followed by young students of a Greek or Latin classic, who could overlook judicious selec- tions from Morris? The student really needs something of the kind in his own language to teach him that there is more than grammar and vocabulary in his Homer or VergiL The methods of to-day, perhaps, do not deserve the criticism which one of the greatest poets of this century gave of his own education I abhorred Too much, to conquer for the poets sake, The drilled dull lesson, forced down word by word In my repugnant youth. It is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. But none the less one feels like pleading earnestly for the ex- tensive use of such books as the one under review. Every one who has the good fortune to study this book with his Iliad ought to be a far better Greek scholar, with an increased power to get the best out of all that he reads. A large number of college students hardly know how to read because of the way they have been led to treat literature in the preparatory course. Mr. Adams, the poet and scholar, whose classes in Morris were so deservedly successful in Boston a year or so ago, has done his work admirably. The notes are sufficient without being intrusive, and are designed to foster a taste for literature rather than for pedantry. The book, like those of Dr. Rolfes series, is most attractive in form, with clear type and appropriate illustrations. ERNEST WHITNEY. MASTER VIRGIL.fThere is no need of the somewhat elaborate apology which prefaces this work. The author says that he sup- posed himself to be one of the few among men of letters who * Morriss Atalantas Race, Etc. Edited by OSCAR Fir ADAMS, with the co- operation of W. J. ROLFE, Litt. D. Boston: Ticknor & Co., 1888. ~ Master Virgil. The author of the Aeneid as he seemed in the middle ages. By J. S. Turisor. pp. 1 + 230. Cincinnati, 0., Robert Clarke & Co., 1888.

60 Current Literature. [Jan., Monniss ATALANTAS RACE, ETc.*~In a study of the Greek myths Ruskin says, You may obtain a more truthful idea of the nature of Greek religion and legend from the poems of Keats and the nearly as beautiful and, in general grasp of subject, far more powerful recent work of Morris, than from frigid scholarship, however extensive. Independent of the influence of Ruskins opinion, for a course in English to be followed by young students of a Greek or Latin classic, who could overlook judicious selec- tions from Morris? The student really needs something of the kind in his own language to teach him that there is more than grammar and vocabulary in his Homer or VergiL The methods of to-day, perhaps, do not deserve the criticism which one of the greatest poets of this century gave of his own education I abhorred Too much, to conquer for the poets sake, The drilled dull lesson, forced down word by word In my repugnant youth. It is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. But none the less one feels like pleading earnestly for the ex- tensive use of such books as the one under review. Every one who has the good fortune to study this book with his Iliad ought to be a far better Greek scholar, with an increased power to get the best out of all that he reads. A large number of college students hardly know how to read because of the way they have been led to treat literature in the preparatory course. Mr. Adams, the poet and scholar, whose classes in Morris were so deservedly successful in Boston a year or so ago, has done his work admirably. The notes are sufficient without being intrusive, and are designed to foster a taste for literature rather than for pedantry. The book, like those of Dr. Rolfes series, is most attractive in form, with clear type and appropriate illustrations. ERNEST WHITNEY. MASTER VIRGIL.fThere is no need of the somewhat elaborate apology which prefaces this work. The author says that he sup- posed himself to be one of the few among men of letters who * Morriss Atalantas Race, Etc. Edited by OSCAR Fir ADAMS, with the co- operation of W. J. ROLFE, Litt. D. Boston: Ticknor & Co., 1888. ~ Master Virgil. The author of the Aeneid as he seemed in the middle ages. By J. S. Turisor. pp. 1 + 230. Cincinnati, 0., Robert Clarke & Co., 1888.

60 Current Literature. [Jan., Monniss ATALANTAS RACE, ETc.*~In a study of the Greek myths Ruskin says, You may obtain a more truthful idea of the nature of Greek religion and legend from the poems of Keats and the nearly as beautiful and, in general grasp of subject, far more powerful recent work of Morris, than from frigid scholarship, however extensive. Independent of the influence of Ruskins opinion, for a course in English to be followed by young students of a Greek or Latin classic, who could overlook judicious selec- tions from Morris? The student really needs something of the kind in his own language to teach him that there is more than grammar and vocabulary in his Homer or VergiL The methods of to-day, perhaps, do not deserve the criticism which one of the greatest poets of this century gave of his own education I abhorred Too much, to conquer for the poets sake, The drilled dull lesson, forced down word by word In my repugnant youth. It is a curse To understand, not feel thy lyric flow, To comprehend, but never love thy verse. But none the less one feels like pleading earnestly for the ex- tensive use of such books as the one under review. Every one who has the good fortune to study this book with his Iliad ought to be a far better Greek scholar, with an increased power to get the best out of all that he reads. A large number of college students hardly know how to read because of the way they have been led to treat literature in the preparatory course. Mr. Adams, the poet and scholar, whose classes in Morris were so deservedly successful in Boston a year or so ago, has done his work admirably. The notes are sufficient without being intrusive, and are designed to foster a taste for literature rather than for pedantry. The book, like those of Dr. Rolfes series, is most attractive in form, with clear type and appropriate illustrations. ERNEST WHITNEY. MASTER VIRGIL.fThere is no need of the somewhat elaborate apology which prefaces this work. The author says that he sup- posed himself to be one of the few among men of letters who * Morriss Atalantas Race, Etc. Edited by OSCAR Fir ADAMS, with the co- operation of W. J. ROLFE, Litt. D. Boston: Ticknor & Co., 1888. ~ Master Virgil. The author of the Aeneid as he seemed in the middle ages. By J. S. Turisor. pp. 1 + 230. Cincinnati, 0., Robert Clarke & Co., 1888. 1889.1 Current Literature. 61 lacked knowledge concerning the curious legends of all kinds attributed to Vergil during the middle ages, and therefore fell to studying the subject. The conclusion which he might soon have reached is that there are very few who do not lack this knowl- edge. So we have to thank what he is pleased to call his inex- cusable ignorance for a book which will probably not be finan- cially profitable to its author, but which can hardly fail to interest all students of the middle ages. The study of folk-lore seems now to be going through a sort of Renaissance, and its real importance in the study of man is being better appreciated. Nothing throws more light on the character and customs of times and countries than the tales and legends current among the mass of the population. No writer of antiquity enjoyed so great popularity during the middle ages and was so thoroughly brought into both student and folk-lore as Vergil, and the legends connected with his name add not a little vividness to our appreciation of the credulity and superstition of the learned and unlearned of that period. The bulk of the book before us is made up of eight chapters, each a complete essay, on Virgil and the Devil, Virgil in Liter- ary Tradition, Virgils Book of Magic, Virgil, the Man of Science, Virgil, the Saviour of Rome, Virgil, the Lover, Virgil, the Prophet, and Virgil in Later Literature. In each of these chap- ters the author has outlined a careful and well arranged analysis of the principal legends falling under that particular head. The result is that we get a clearer idea of the different aspects of the subject, than is possible by any other arrangement, although this method has certain minor disadvantages. Many exceedingly in- teresting stories and notes are found in all these chapters, but perhaps the most interesting and best worked-out essay is the eighth, on Vergil, the Prophet. There is no better illustration of the absurd method of strained allegorical interpretation so often resorted to in times past, particularly by the theologians, than the manner in which the fourth eclogue of Vergil was made over into a clear case of Messianic prophecy. But then, even that is not much worse than the modern fashionable method of interpretation so vigorously denounced by Andrew Lang in a recent paper. So far, then, as the principal part of this volume is concerned, we can commend it highly, but something must be said about the authors main thesis. This is stated on page 191. The Virgil- ian legends so far as they concerned the poet himself, had only a secondary connection with what is scientifically known as folk- 62 Current Literature. lore. They were the product throughout of the literary spirit of times clouded by superstition. The popular element in them is the element which antedated their relation to Virgil. The au- thor on reading Comparettis Virgilio nel lliliedio Evo came to the conclusion that the Italian professor overdrew the indebtedness of the literature of the twelfth century to Neapolitan folk-lore, and himself asserts that the facts point to a literary rather than a popular genesis for the special fiction in which the name of Virgil figures. Comparetti, to whom Mr. Tunison acknowledges that he is indebted for most of his material, argued with great learning and acuteness for the opposite thesis, that the basis of the Vergilian legend was found in Neapolitan folk-lore, although this original germ was taken up and elaborated by the scholars and chroniclers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Mr. Tunison expressly disclaims all pretensions to learning or to a scientific method in the treatment of this subject but still casts aside Comparettis theory as wholly untenable and claims to have proved his own. We think that one who reads the two books at all carefully, will hardly grant this claim. It would be too long a task to reproduce here the arguments on both sides with any degree of completeness. Suffice it to say that no s& fficient evi- dence is produced to show that there were no traces of Vergilian folk-lore in Naples until after they had appeared in the learned literature of Western Europe. On the contrary, we think Coin- paretti has shown that there were such traces. Even if there were no mention of such folk-lore in Italian literature before the close of the twelfth century, this could not justify one in main- taining that it did not exist among the people, as Comparetti is careful to point out. No one would question the fact that a large part of the Vergilian legend was the work of scholars inspired by a certain kind of superstition, but to cast out the basis of real folk-lore is too rash a proceeding, contrary to precedent and ante- cedent probabilty. Mr. Tunisons error lies in confusing the two elements of the legends. This view, however, does not materially detract from the value of the rest of the book as an excellent pre- sentation of the curious stories which clustered around the poets memory during that strange period. It is published in attractive form, and we have noticed only one misprint,virtutilds, on page 167. It is a pity that the modern spelling of the poets name was not adopted, and that no index is provided, so that one is com- pelled to get along as well as may be with only the table of con- tents. S. B. PLATi~. 1889.] Current Literature. 63 FISKES CRITICAL PInuOD OF AMErnc~ HISTORY.~7*~We have become accustomed to expect that any writing of Mr. Fiskes, in all the wide range of subjects with which he has dealt, will be found very suggestive and will set us thinking in new lines. However widely we may disagree with the conclusions reached we rarely fail to see facts in a new light, or to find the re- lations of things to one another, the lines of cause and effectthe really important meanings of factsmade so plain that we cannot miss them. This book is no exception to the rule. It is a matter of congratulation, too, that a book of this kind, on a period so full of political lessons, should be given us at a time when events seem to promise a new era of thoughtfulness and painstaking in the settlement of political questions. To be sure the specific problems of that age are very different from those of ours. But the most important lesson which the men of that time had to teach themselves is the same that we must learn. It is a good thing to have it made clear to us from the experience of our fathers that a great political problem is not to be settled by an apostrophe to liberty or by a torch-light procession, and that a man who appeals to passion or prejudice instead of to reason in the face of a serious national difficulty, comes dangerously near the moral guilt of treason. There is no preaching in the book however, its lessons are left to plain and easy inference and are in no wise obtruded on the reader. One further impression which the book leaves upon the mind should be noticed. Some prominent accounts of the period dwell almost exclusively on the difficulties which beset the central gov- ernment, on the discord and jealousies between the different States, and on the confusion, almost anarchy, which seemed to reign everywhere. One closes the reading of Von Hoists in- cisive chapter, for example, with a feeling that the Americans were in some way very blameworthy for the condition of political disorder into which they had fallen and that if they had been such wise statesmen as we are accustomed to think them they would, long before they did, have established a strong central govern- ment and brought order out of chaos. It is, of course, to be ex- pected that such an impression will be made by a chapter written with the perhaps half-unconscious motive of showing our national pride in the work of that time to be hardly well-foundeda mo * The Critical Period of American Ilictory, 17831789. By JOHN FISKE. Bos- ton: Houghton, Muffin & Cc., 1888.

1889.] Current Literature. 63 FISKES CRITICAL PInuOD OF AMErnc~ HISTORY.~7*~We have become accustomed to expect that any writing of Mr. Fiskes, in all the wide range of subjects with which he has dealt, will be found very suggestive and will set us thinking in new lines. However widely we may disagree with the conclusions reached we rarely fail to see facts in a new light, or to find the re- lations of things to one another, the lines of cause and effectthe really important meanings of factsmade so plain that we cannot miss them. This book is no exception to the rule. It is a matter of congratulation, too, that a book of this kind, on a period so full of political lessons, should be given us at a time when events seem to promise a new era of thoughtfulness and painstaking in the settlement of political questions. To be sure the specific problems of that age are very different from those of ours. But the most important lesson which the men of that time had to teach themselves is the same that we must learn. It is a good thing to have it made clear to us from the experience of our fathers that a great political problem is not to be settled by an apostrophe to liberty or by a torch-light procession, and that a man who appeals to passion or prejudice instead of to reason in the face of a serious national difficulty, comes dangerously near the moral guilt of treason. There is no preaching in the book however, its lessons are left to plain and easy inference and are in no wise obtruded on the reader. One further impression which the book leaves upon the mind should be noticed. Some prominent accounts of the period dwell almost exclusively on the difficulties which beset the central gov- ernment, on the discord and jealousies between the different States, and on the confusion, almost anarchy, which seemed to reign everywhere. One closes the reading of Von Hoists in- cisive chapter, for example, with a feeling that the Americans were in some way very blameworthy for the condition of political disorder into which they had fallen and that if they had been such wise statesmen as we are accustomed to think them they would, long before they did, have established a strong central govern- ment and brought order out of chaos. It is, of course, to be ex- pected that such an impression will be made by a chapter written with the perhaps half-unconscious motive of showing our national pride in the work of that time to be hardly well-foundeda mo * The Critical Period of American Ilictory, 17831789. By JOHN FISKE. Bos- ton: Houghton, Muffin & Cc., 1888. 64 Current Literature. [Jan., tive to which Von Hoist gives virtual expression in his concluding paragraph. But although such a judgment is not without its jus- tification and its beneficial influence it is nevertheless only a par- tial and one-sided one. No doubt the constitution was extorted from the grinding necessity of a reluctant people. The point is a necessary one to keep in mind but it is only half the truth. The real matter of surprise should be that under the circumstances a government meriting the high praise it has received could be even extorted. In this book the author quotes his earlier judgment that the work of the convention is the finest specimen of constructive statesmanship that the world has ever seen and fortifies it with the identical opinion of Mr. Gladstone. He might now add that of Mr. Bryce. Such estimates do not seem extravagant when we look at the circumstances. When we remember that the American people had had no experience whatever of a strong national government that all real government had been up to that time local, and that all their past history had been training them to look for serious danger in any government interference from without; when we remember these facts we may insist that we have a just right to be proud that a government which was to prove itself so success- ful in almost every way was formed so early. It could have been done by no people who had not thoroughly acquired the habit of self-government, and that indefinable sense which guides a really self-governing people, the sense which is continually evolving from the chaos of what seems tobe only selfish and ignoble party or per- sonal wrangling an orderly and successful government; which tells when to insist upon a point and when to compromise, and above all how to make a compromise ;that instinct which the foreign ob- server often finds it difficult to understand, in cases of its practi- cal working if not in theory, and of which it is easy to say, as is somewhat the fashion in Germany just now, that its possession by any people is an expensive luxury. The book makes the political confusion of the time as clear as possible but in such a way that we see it to be the unavoidable result of the past, and close the account with a feeling that the making of such a government at all is a ground for our pride in the work of the convention, equally with the character of the government made. It is even more justly a ground of hope for the future, provided we can retain or increase such willingness as then existed, to be convinced by argument and to yield local or personal interests, however important they may seem, to general considerations. GEORGE B. ADAMs. 1889.] Current Literature. 65 PEu~Ews IN CASTLE AND CABIN * is a book which every one should read who wishes to understand the state of feeling in Ireland with regard to the various public questions that are be- ing discussed there. The author, with plenty of the best intro- ductions, spent some months in visiting every part of the island, and sought every opportunity to make himself acquainted with the facts. The book is made up of reports of a very large num- ber of conversations that he had with people of all shades of opinion; from the Lord Mayor of Dublin to drummers whom he met in the railroad cars, and to working people in their cabins. He has collected a mass of information with regard to Home Rule, the recent Land Acts, the feelings of the Roman Catholics, the subject of Protection, the Bounty System, the hopes and expectations of the people, the value of which cannot be over- estimated. LETTERS FROM WALDEGRAITE COTTAGEt form a collection of the reminiscences of an accomplished Episcopal clergyman, who during a long life has known many distinguished public men. Among these are Chief Justice Jay; Bishop Brownell; Bishop Hobart; Bishop Onderdonk, of New York; and Dr. Haight. The book has a special interest from its many allusions to New Haven, and to the surrounding country, to the University, and to its Professors. A chapter on college life at Yale, fifty-seven years ago, is valuable for its descriptions, and its allusions to Professor Silliman, Professor Olmsted, Professor Goodrich, and others. Mr. Nichols was a classmate of the late Professor Thacher, and an appreciative tribute to his memory which the book contains is specially interesting as coming from one who knew him as a student. The book is illustrated with the portraits of many of the distinguished men whom he has known. THE ART AMATEUR for January contains two attractive col- ored studies, one of Daffodils in oils, and the other a portrait of a young woman, in water colors. The designs in black and white include a double page of birds (magpies and fly catchers), a lamp vase decoration (jack-in-the-pulpit), decorations for a plate * In Castle and Cal~in, or Talks on Ireland in 188~1. By GEORGE PELLEW, of the Suffolk Bar. G. P. Putnams Sons. New York. 1888. l2mo. pp. 309. ~ Letters from Waldegrave Cottage. By Rev. GEORGE W. NIcHOLs, A. MX 1888. l2mo. pp. 253. Price $1. To be obtained by addressing the author, Rev. George W. Nichols, Norwalk, Conn. vOL. xiv.

1889.] Current Literature. 65 PEu~Ews IN CASTLE AND CABIN * is a book which every one should read who wishes to understand the state of feeling in Ireland with regard to the various public questions that are be- ing discussed there. The author, with plenty of the best intro- ductions, spent some months in visiting every part of the island, and sought every opportunity to make himself acquainted with the facts. The book is made up of reports of a very large num- ber of conversations that he had with people of all shades of opinion; from the Lord Mayor of Dublin to drummers whom he met in the railroad cars, and to working people in their cabins. He has collected a mass of information with regard to Home Rule, the recent Land Acts, the feelings of the Roman Catholics, the subject of Protection, the Bounty System, the hopes and expectations of the people, the value of which cannot be over- estimated. LETTERS FROM WALDEGRAITE COTTAGEt form a collection of the reminiscences of an accomplished Episcopal clergyman, who during a long life has known many distinguished public men. Among these are Chief Justice Jay; Bishop Brownell; Bishop Hobart; Bishop Onderdonk, of New York; and Dr. Haight. The book has a special interest from its many allusions to New Haven, and to the surrounding country, to the University, and to its Professors. A chapter on college life at Yale, fifty-seven years ago, is valuable for its descriptions, and its allusions to Professor Silliman, Professor Olmsted, Professor Goodrich, and others. Mr. Nichols was a classmate of the late Professor Thacher, and an appreciative tribute to his memory which the book contains is specially interesting as coming from one who knew him as a student. The book is illustrated with the portraits of many of the distinguished men whom he has known. THE ART AMATEUR for January contains two attractive col- ored studies, one of Daffodils in oils, and the other a portrait of a young woman, in water colors. The designs in black and white include a double page of birds (magpies and fly catchers), a lamp vase decoration (jack-in-the-pulpit), decorations for a plate * In Castle and Cal~in, or Talks on Ireland in 188~1. By GEORGE PELLEW, of the Suffolk Bar. G. P. Putnams Sons. New York. 1888. l2mo. pp. 309. ~ Letters from Waldegrave Cottage. By Rev. GEORGE W. NIcHOLs, A. MX 1888. l2mo. pp. 253. Price $1. To be obtained by addressing the author, Rev. George W. Nichols, Norwalk, Conn. vOL. xiv.

1889.] Current Literature. 65 PEu~Ews IN CASTLE AND CABIN * is a book which every one should read who wishes to understand the state of feeling in Ireland with regard to the various public questions that are be- ing discussed there. The author, with plenty of the best intro- ductions, spent some months in visiting every part of the island, and sought every opportunity to make himself acquainted with the facts. The book is made up of reports of a very large num- ber of conversations that he had with people of all shades of opinion; from the Lord Mayor of Dublin to drummers whom he met in the railroad cars, and to working people in their cabins. He has collected a mass of information with regard to Home Rule, the recent Land Acts, the feelings of the Roman Catholics, the subject of Protection, the Bounty System, the hopes and expectations of the people, the value of which cannot be over- estimated. LETTERS FROM WALDEGRAITE COTTAGEt form a collection of the reminiscences of an accomplished Episcopal clergyman, who during a long life has known many distinguished public men. Among these are Chief Justice Jay; Bishop Brownell; Bishop Hobart; Bishop Onderdonk, of New York; and Dr. Haight. The book has a special interest from its many allusions to New Haven, and to the surrounding country, to the University, and to its Professors. A chapter on college life at Yale, fifty-seven years ago, is valuable for its descriptions, and its allusions to Professor Silliman, Professor Olmsted, Professor Goodrich, and others. Mr. Nichols was a classmate of the late Professor Thacher, and an appreciative tribute to his memory which the book contains is specially interesting as coming from one who knew him as a student. The book is illustrated with the portraits of many of the distinguished men whom he has known. THE ART AMATEUR for January contains two attractive col- ored studies, one of Daffodils in oils, and the other a portrait of a young woman, in water colors. The designs in black and white include a double page of birds (magpies and fly catchers), a lamp vase decoration (jack-in-the-pulpit), decorations for a plate * In Castle and Cal~in, or Talks on Ireland in 188~1. By GEORGE PELLEW, of the Suffolk Bar. G. P. Putnams Sons. New York. 1888. l2mo. pp. 309. ~ Letters from Waldegrave Cottage. By Rev. GEORGE W. NIcHOLs, A. MX 1888. l2mo. pp. 253. Price $1. To be obtained by addressing the author, Rev. George W. Nichols, Norwalk, Conn. vOL. xiv.

1889.] Current Literature. 65 PEu~Ews IN CASTLE AND CABIN * is a book which every one should read who wishes to understand the state of feeling in Ireland with regard to the various public questions that are be- ing discussed there. The author, with plenty of the best intro- ductions, spent some months in visiting every part of the island, and sought every opportunity to make himself acquainted with the facts. The book is made up of reports of a very large num- ber of conversations that he had with people of all shades of opinion; from the Lord Mayor of Dublin to drummers whom he met in the railroad cars, and to working people in their cabins. He has collected a mass of information with regard to Home Rule, the recent Land Acts, the feelings of the Roman Catholics, the subject of Protection, the Bounty System, the hopes and expectations of the people, the value of which cannot be over- estimated. LETTERS FROM WALDEGRAITE COTTAGEt form a collection of the reminiscences of an accomplished Episcopal clergyman, who during a long life has known many distinguished public men. Among these are Chief Justice Jay; Bishop Brownell; Bishop Hobart; Bishop Onderdonk, of New York; and Dr. Haight. The book has a special interest from its many allusions to New Haven, and to the surrounding country, to the University, and to its Professors. A chapter on college life at Yale, fifty-seven years ago, is valuable for its descriptions, and its allusions to Professor Silliman, Professor Olmsted, Professor Goodrich, and others. Mr. Nichols was a classmate of the late Professor Thacher, and an appreciative tribute to his memory which the book contains is specially interesting as coming from one who knew him as a student. The book is illustrated with the portraits of many of the distinguished men whom he has known. THE ART AMATEUR for January contains two attractive col- ored studies, one of Daffodils in oils, and the other a portrait of a young woman, in water colors. The designs in black and white include a double page of birds (magpies and fly catchers), a lamp vase decoration (jack-in-the-pulpit), decorations for a plate * In Castle and Cal~in, or Talks on Ireland in 188~1. By GEORGE PELLEW, of the Suffolk Bar. G. P. Putnams Sons. New York. 1888. l2mo. pp. 309. ~ Letters from Waldegrave Cottage. By Rev. GEORGE W. NIcHOLs, A. MX 1888. l2mo. pp. 253. Price $1. To be obtained by addressing the author, Rev. George W. Nichols, Norwalk, Conn. vOL. xiv. 66 Current Literature. [Jan., (orchids), a fish-plate and a Royal Worcester vase, a design for an embroidered chair-back and one for a ped~-clotb, a page of Gothic bands for wood-carving, and two carved mirror frames. The frontispiece is a study of Winter in the Woods. The specially practical articles are those on flower painting, tapestry painting, and water color painting, and a useful Letter to a young lady who asks if she can learn China Painting. The department of amateur photography is of interest. The series on Home Deco- ration and Furniture is resumed, and there are numerous other articles and illustrations relating to similar topics, including needlework both church and secular. Important current events specially noticed are the opening of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Academy and Architectural League Exhibitions. Price 35 cents a single number. Montague Marks, publisher, 23 Union Square, New York. ~4.OO per year. THE JANUARY MAGAZINE OF ART contains a full page en- graving of the statue of Gen. C. G. Gordon, by Hamo Thorny- croft, R.A., in Trafalgar Square, London. A photogravure of the picture Saving the guns at Maiwand, by R. Caton Woodville. A very instructive Article on Expression in Drapery, by Miss Annie Williams, illustrated with four original studies of drapery by Sir Frederick Leighton, for his picture Captive Andro- mache. A descriptive Article on Salisbury Hall, with five illustrations, after drawings by W. E. Symonds. Four engrav- ings from the Liverpool Corporation Collection: the Walker Art Gallery. An Article on the Portraits of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Four illustrations after the works of the French artist Gustave Boulanger; together with American art notes. (Cassell & Co., Limited. New York City. Yearly subscription, ~3.5O. Single number, 35 cents.) PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY. LEIBNITZ.*ThO different numbers of the series of Philo- sophical Classics, to which this book belongs, differ in merit ; but among the more excellent none is better than this one by Pro- fessor Dewey. The difficulties, or, rather the temptations, which stand in the way of any writer who aims at the critical exposi * Leibnitzs New Essays concerning the Human Understanding, A Critical Ex- position, by Jom~ DEWEY, Ph.D., Chicago: S. C. Grigga and Company. 1888.

66 Current Literature. [Jan., (orchids), a fish-plate and a Royal Worcester vase, a design for an embroidered chair-back and one for a ped~-clotb, a page of Gothic bands for wood-carving, and two carved mirror frames. The frontispiece is a study of Winter in the Woods. The specially practical articles are those on flower painting, tapestry painting, and water color painting, and a useful Letter to a young lady who asks if she can learn China Painting. The department of amateur photography is of interest. The series on Home Deco- ration and Furniture is resumed, and there are numerous other articles and illustrations relating to similar topics, including needlework both church and secular. Important current events specially noticed are the opening of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Academy and Architectural League Exhibitions. Price 35 cents a single number. Montague Marks, publisher, 23 Union Square, New York. ~4.OO per year. THE JANUARY MAGAZINE OF ART contains a full page en- graving of the statue of Gen. C. G. Gordon, by Hamo Thorny- croft, R.A., in Trafalgar Square, London. A photogravure of the picture Saving the guns at Maiwand, by R. Caton Woodville. A very instructive Article on Expression in Drapery, by Miss Annie Williams, illustrated with four original studies of drapery by Sir Frederick Leighton, for his picture Captive Andro- mache. A descriptive Article on Salisbury Hall, with five illustrations, after drawings by W. E. Symonds. Four engrav- ings from the Liverpool Corporation Collection: the Walker Art Gallery. An Article on the Portraits of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Four illustrations after the works of the French artist Gustave Boulanger; together with American art notes. (Cassell & Co., Limited. New York City. Yearly subscription, ~3.5O. Single number, 35 cents.) PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY. LEIBNITZ.*ThO different numbers of the series of Philo- sophical Classics, to which this book belongs, differ in merit ; but among the more excellent none is better than this one by Pro- fessor Dewey. The difficulties, or, rather the temptations, which stand in the way of any writer who aims at the critical exposi * Leibnitzs New Essays concerning the Human Understanding, A Critical Ex- position, by Jom~ DEWEY, Ph.D., Chicago: S. C. Grigga and Company. 1888.

66 Current Literature. [Jan., (orchids), a fish-plate and a Royal Worcester vase, a design for an embroidered chair-back and one for a ped~-clotb, a page of Gothic bands for wood-carving, and two carved mirror frames. The frontispiece is a study of Winter in the Woods. The specially practical articles are those on flower painting, tapestry painting, and water color painting, and a useful Letter to a young lady who asks if she can learn China Painting. The department of amateur photography is of interest. The series on Home Deco- ration and Furniture is resumed, and there are numerous other articles and illustrations relating to similar topics, including needlework both church and secular. Important current events specially noticed are the opening of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Academy and Architectural League Exhibitions. Price 35 cents a single number. Montague Marks, publisher, 23 Union Square, New York. ~4.OO per year. THE JANUARY MAGAZINE OF ART contains a full page en- graving of the statue of Gen. C. G. Gordon, by Hamo Thorny- croft, R.A., in Trafalgar Square, London. A photogravure of the picture Saving the guns at Maiwand, by R. Caton Woodville. A very instructive Article on Expression in Drapery, by Miss Annie Williams, illustrated with four original studies of drapery by Sir Frederick Leighton, for his picture Captive Andro- mache. A descriptive Article on Salisbury Hall, with five illustrations, after drawings by W. E. Symonds. Four engrav- ings from the Liverpool Corporation Collection: the Walker Art Gallery. An Article on the Portraits of Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Four illustrations after the works of the French artist Gustave Boulanger; together with American art notes. (Cassell & Co., Limited. New York City. Yearly subscription, ~3.5O. Single number, 35 cents.) PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY. LEIBNITZ.*ThO different numbers of the series of Philo- sophical Classics, to which this book belongs, differ in merit ; but among the more excellent none is better than this one by Pro- fessor Dewey. The difficulties, or, rather the temptations, which stand in the way of any writer who aims at the critical exposi * Leibnitzs New Essays concerning the Human Understanding, A Critical Ex- position, by Jom~ DEWEY, Ph.D., Chicago: S. C. Grigga and Company. 1888. 1889.] Cunent Li~eratare. 67 tion of a philosophical master-piece, are many and subtle. Few are able wholly to resisl them. Nor are minds fitted to the work of interpretation at all frequently to be found. After three introductory chapters on Leibnitz, the Man, the Sources of his Philosophy, and the Problem and its Solu- tion, his controversy with Locke is presented, as it concerned the questions of Innate Ideas, Sensation and Experience, The Impulses and the Will, Matter and its Relation to Spirit, Material Phenomena and their Reality, the conceptions of Substance, and Infinity, and the Nature and Extent of Knowledge. After this comes a chapter on the Theology of Leibnitz; Professor Dewey finishes his work with a brief criti- cism of certain fundamental points of Leibnitzs philosophy. We cotisider the work of interpretation in the chapters compos- ing the body of this book to be uncommonly well done,so well done, indeed, that it would be quite feasible to take a class of seniors in college through this critical exposition and bring them out upon its farther side with a somewhat clear conception of the real opinions of the great German thinker. The excellence of clear exposition renders this book particu- larly valuable; for Leibuitz himself produced no body of philo- sophical writings, which set forth his views in a systematic way; and even the Nouveaux Essais, as Professor Dewey says, is a compendium of comments, rather than a connected argument or exposition. Leibnitz, then, has peculiar need of popular and yet critical exposition. As might be expected, we find in the closing chapter, which criticises Leibnitzs positions, several points to be called in ques- tion, and one or two from which we dissent. To mention only one of the latter, we cannot think that Professor Dewey is right in ascribing to Leibnitzs views so much positive influence upon Kants position in the Critique of Pure Ileason. One has only to read carefully Kants remarks on the amphiboly of the con- ceptions of reflection to see how completely he intended to cut up, root and branch, both Leibnitzs method and also all his prin- cipal conclusions. When Kant, in replying to Eberhards claim that the Leibnitzian philosophy contained a critique of reason just as well as the modern, rejoined that he was himself the true continuator of Liebnitz, since he had only changed the doctrine of the latter so as to make it conform to the true intent of Leib- nitz, he was speaking ironically. At Eberhards time it was not 68 Current Literature. [Jan., the first or the last occasion when the old orthodoxy, after vainly combating the new criticism has at last turned about and claimed the conclusions of their criticism as essentially its own. The writer of this notice remembers how complete a failure was the result of his own attempt to use for this purpose a similar critical exposition of Kants Critique of Pure Reason. Statement and interpretation of Kants views had been so blended with the interpreters criticism, personal opinions, and philosophical stand-point, that the class could not be taught to distinguish which belonged to the doctrine of the great teacher they were studying, and what tQ the opinion of his ex- positor. POETRY, COMEDY, AND DuTY.*~~Under this title Professor Everett has given us a series of delightful essays on the Imag- ination, the Philosophy of Poetry, the Poetic Aspect of Nature, Magic Forces in Life and Literature, the Philoso- phy of the Comic, the Ultimate Facts of Ethics, and the New Ethics. In a concluding chapter he considers Poetry, Comedy, and Duty, in their relation to one another. The author has that blending of the power of reflective thought with a fine sense of the beautiful which constitutes peculiar fitness for the work of dealing with such themes. We find little attempt at strictness of definition; but the light is thrown upon the subject from various and changing points of view. Professor Everett treats the imagination as the power which creates and reveals the ideal. The highest truth is in the ideal, whether it be truth of science, truth of experience, truth of art. If, then, we would attain the truth, the imagination, the dis- cerning and creating power of the soul, should rouse itself to a higher work. Poetry, like painting and sculpture, is a repre- sentative art. Even in its lyrical form, it does not directly ex- press passion; it represents passion. It deals, then, not with in- dividual and actual life, but with life become universal and ideal. Rhyme and rhythm form the material with which poetry works. It is the power of nature also to represent this universal life which gives it the poetic aspect which it wears. The secret of tragedy is that it shows us personality struggling with the destiny it has drawn upon itself. The tragic elements * Poetry, Comedy, and Duty. By C. C. EVERETT, D.D. Boston and New York: Hougliton, Muffin and Co.

68 Current Literature. [Jan., the first or the last occasion when the old orthodoxy, after vainly combating the new criticism has at last turned about and claimed the conclusions of their criticism as essentially its own. The writer of this notice remembers how complete a failure was the result of his own attempt to use for this purpose a similar critical exposition of Kants Critique of Pure Reason. Statement and interpretation of Kants views had been so blended with the interpreters criticism, personal opinions, and philosophical stand-point, that the class could not be taught to distinguish which belonged to the doctrine of the great teacher they were studying, and what tQ the opinion of his ex- positor. POETRY, COMEDY, AND DuTY.*~~Under this title Professor Everett has given us a series of delightful essays on the Imag- ination, the Philosophy of Poetry, the Poetic Aspect of Nature, Magic Forces in Life and Literature, the Philoso- phy of the Comic, the Ultimate Facts of Ethics, and the New Ethics. In a concluding chapter he considers Poetry, Comedy, and Duty, in their relation to one another. The author has that blending of the power of reflective thought with a fine sense of the beautiful which constitutes peculiar fitness for the work of dealing with such themes. We find little attempt at strictness of definition; but the light is thrown upon the subject from various and changing points of view. Professor Everett treats the imagination as the power which creates and reveals the ideal. The highest truth is in the ideal, whether it be truth of science, truth of experience, truth of art. If, then, we would attain the truth, the imagination, the dis- cerning and creating power of the soul, should rouse itself to a higher work. Poetry, like painting and sculpture, is a repre- sentative art. Even in its lyrical form, it does not directly ex- press passion; it represents passion. It deals, then, not with in- dividual and actual life, but with life become universal and ideal. Rhyme and rhythm form the material with which poetry works. It is the power of nature also to represent this universal life which gives it the poetic aspect which it wears. The secret of tragedy is that it shows us personality struggling with the destiny it has drawn upon itself. The tragic elements * Poetry, Comedy, and Duty. By C. C. EVERETT, D.D. Boston and New York: Hougliton, Muffin and Co. 1889.] Current Literature. 69 of necessity, blindness, and retribution, form the great roof of life. Hence the life-likeness of true tragedy. But, as has been almost uniformly recognized, there is a close kinship between tragedy and comedy. How shall, then, their likeness and their differences be described? Professor Everetts reply is, in brief, as follows: Both the comic and the tragic are based upon in- congruities; the difference between them lies in the fact that the comic is found in an incongruous relation, considered merely as to its form, while the tragic is found in an incongruous relation taken as to its reality. It is interesting in this connection to refer to Lotzes view. Tragedy and comedy, says he, have, fundamentally considered, the same end ;namely, to show that it is the general metaphysical weakness of every finite creature to come to harm, as soon as it deems itself capable o f playing the part of Providence, and of laying hold on the coherent system of the worlds course, as a formative and guiding principle. Only that in tragedy, great and powerful characters, with plans of much moment, are shattered, being overthrown by the vast forces of the worlds ongoing course, while, in comedy, insignifi- cant figures with their petty intrigues are overthrown by the ordinary accidents of life. In the two essays on ethics, Professor Everett contrasts and, in a measure, attempts to harmonize the new and the old. The consciousness of human responsibility is the chief characteristic of the old morality; a certain practicality, that comes from the development of the science of political economy, characterizes the new morality. The old principle of personal relationship must find expression in methods that accord with the practical wisdom derived from statistics, social data, etc. Thus will harmony re- sult between the two types of ethical theory and conduct. It would be aifficult to find a more refreshing and quickening little book among those of the year past than this collection of essays by Professor Everett. THEOLOGICAL AND RELIGIOUS. DoDs NEW TESTAMENT INTRODUCTION1 is one of a series of theological hand-books which are appearing under the title of the Theological Educator, and are edited by Rev. W. Robertson INicoll of the Expositor. The book limits itself to special in * An Introduction to the New Testament. By Rev. MARcus DoDs, D.D. Thomas Whittaker, New York: 1888. pp. 24g.

1889.] Current Literature. 69 of necessity, blindness, and retribution, form the great roof of life. Hence the life-likeness of true tragedy. But, as has been almost uniformly recognized, there is a close kinship between tragedy and comedy. How shall, then, their likeness and their differences be described? Professor Everetts reply is, in brief, as follows: Both the comic and the tragic are based upon in- congruities; the difference between them lies in the fact that the comic is found in an incongruous relation, considered merely as to its form, while the tragic is found in an incongruous relation taken as to its reality. It is interesting in this connection to refer to Lotzes view. Tragedy and comedy, says he, have, fundamentally considered, the same end ;namely, to show that it is the general metaphysical weakness of every finite creature to come to harm, as soon as it deems itself capable o f playing the part of Providence, and of laying hold on the coherent system of the worlds course, as a formative and guiding principle. Only that in tragedy, great and powerful characters, with plans of much moment, are shattered, being overthrown by the vast forces of the worlds ongoing course, while, in comedy, insignifi- cant figures with their petty intrigues are overthrown by the ordinary accidents of life. In the two essays on ethics, Professor Everett contrasts and, in a measure, attempts to harmonize the new and the old. The consciousness of human responsibility is the chief characteristic of the old morality; a certain practicality, that comes from the development of the science of political economy, characterizes the new morality. The old principle of personal relationship must find expression in methods that accord with the practical wisdom derived from statistics, social data, etc. Thus will harmony re- sult between the two types of ethical theory and conduct. It would be aifficult to find a more refreshing and quickening little book among those of the year past than this collection of essays by Professor Everett. THEOLOGICAL AND RELIGIOUS. DoDs NEW TESTAMENT INTRODUCTION1 is one of a series of theological hand-books which are appearing under the title of the Theological Educator, and are edited by Rev. W. Robertson INicoll of the Expositor. The book limits itself to special in * An Introduction to the New Testament. By Rev. MARcus DoDs, D.D. Thomas Whittaker, New York: 1888. pp. 24g. 70 Current Literature. troduction to the various New Testament books. The treatment is necessarily brief, but is not meager. The various critical opin ions held by scholars upon important disputed points are quite fully stated. The effort has been to put the reader in possession of the problems rather than of the authors opinions upon them. The book is primarily intended as a guide for professional stu- dents and others who may be presumed to be able to weigh evi- dence and make a study of the questions involved on their own account. Of course it is not so elaborate as the works of Weiss and Bleek, but it is much better adapted than either of these for class-room use, both by reason of its brevity and by reason of its dispassionate presentation of all sides. The author has placed before his readers the data on which judgment is to be based, but has kept his own judgment in the background of his discussions. We do not learn his views of the relation of the Logia to the first gospel, nor his opinion of the authorship of James and the Hebrews. Yet we have the data on which every opinion must be based. We consider the bookwithin its limitationsan excellent and serviceable one. It fills a place not exactly occupied before, and may be commended as a guide to those critical and literary questions which meet the student of New Testament literature. The book is not free from inaccuracies, for example (p. 182): Paul uses the Hebrew, not the Greek Bible. On the contrary, Pauls citations are almost uniformly from the Septuagint. GEORGE B. STEVENS. ABBOTT ON RoMANs.*~This volume is the product of pro- longed and careful study and, therefore, of firm conviction on the authors part concerning the character and bearing of Pauls teaching. its appearance has been long delayed in order that the views which it embodies might be well matured. Dr. Ab- bott starts from the assumption that Paul was an evangelist rather than a philosopher, a poet rather than a scholastic (p. 5). He believes that scholastic theology has been imputed to Pauls writings, not deduced from them, and that Paul is essentially a Christian mystic (p. 5). The author considers the disputes over the Pauline conception of righteousness and justifica- tion largely a war of words and in general he dissents from * The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans, with notes, comments, maps, and illustrations. By Rev. LYMAN ABBOTT. A.S. Barnes & Co., New York and Chicago, 1888. pp. 230.

70 Current Literature. troduction to the various New Testament books. The treatment is necessarily brief, but is not meager. The various critical opin ions held by scholars upon important disputed points are quite fully stated. The effort has been to put the reader in possession of the problems rather than of the authors opinions upon them. The book is primarily intended as a guide for professional stu- dents and others who may be presumed to be able to weigh evi- dence and make a study of the questions involved on their own account. Of course it is not so elaborate as the works of Weiss and Bleek, but it is much better adapted than either of these for class-room use, both by reason of its brevity and by reason of its dispassionate presentation of all sides. The author has placed before his readers the data on which judgment is to be based, but has kept his own judgment in the background of his discussions. We do not learn his views of the relation of the Logia to the first gospel, nor his opinion of the authorship of James and the Hebrews. Yet we have the data on which every opinion must be based. We consider the bookwithin its limitationsan excellent and serviceable one. It fills a place not exactly occupied before, and may be commended as a guide to those critical and literary questions which meet the student of New Testament literature. The book is not free from inaccuracies, for example (p. 182): Paul uses the Hebrew, not the Greek Bible. On the contrary, Pauls citations are almost uniformly from the Septuagint. GEORGE B. STEVENS. ABBOTT ON RoMANs.*~This volume is the product of pro- longed and careful study and, therefore, of firm conviction on the authors part concerning the character and bearing of Pauls teaching. its appearance has been long delayed in order that the views which it embodies might be well matured. Dr. Ab- bott starts from the assumption that Paul was an evangelist rather than a philosopher, a poet rather than a scholastic (p. 5). He believes that scholastic theology has been imputed to Pauls writings, not deduced from them, and that Paul is essentially a Christian mystic (p. 5). The author considers the disputes over the Pauline conception of righteousness and justifica- tion largely a war of words and in general he dissents from * The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans, with notes, comments, maps, and illustrations. By Rev. LYMAN ABBOTT. A.S. Barnes & Co., New York and Chicago, 1888. pp. 230. 1889.] Current Literature. 71 the views of the forensic interpreters. ile endeavors to pene- trate to the substance of spiritual truth which underlies the apostles conceptions and arguments, an attempt most praise- worthy in our judgment, but often leading him to disregard the forat of Pauls thoughts. We like the theology of this com- mentary better than its exegesis. It is well to point out the vital and spiritual contents of Pauls thought-forms, but it is not well to explain away those forms or to make them identical with our own. For practical purposes the essential content is the main interest, but for critical and historical interpretation, it is needful to follow the very lines of the apostles own thinking, and, for the time, to run our thought into his moulds. We think Dr. Abbott has too frequently run Pauls thought into his own moulds. The work is one of much vigor and vivacity. It is an excellent and useful book, but it takes too little account of the peculiarities of the apostles thought to be always reliable for critical study. Paul was certainly a mystic, but not a nine- teenth century mystic. his mysticism was determined in its pe- culiarities by both his Jewish training and his own qualities of mind. His modes of reasoning were largely forensic, and the forensic interpreters so far have an advantage in interpreting his forms of thought, though they have always been in danger of identifying the forms with the substance and of building their systems as much upon the former as upon the latter. The volume is nearly equally divided between expository re- marks and essays or e~rcursus on topics related to the course of thought in the epistle or bearing more generally upon the apos- tles doctrine. The strictures which we should pass upon the work are no disparagement of its deep spiritual earnestness and practical helpfulness. GEORGE B. STEVENS. STEARNS INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT* is a brief handbook designed as a guide for the students of the English Old Testament. The general character of each book is succinctly described, its contents analyzed, and the literary and historical problems connected with it indicated. Copious references are given to literature bearing upon the various books as well as to discussions of special topics connected with them. * Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament. By 0. S. STEARNS, D.D., Pro- fessor in Newton Theological Institution. Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston. pp. 148

1889.] Current Literature. 71 the views of the forensic interpreters. ile endeavors to pene- trate to the substance of spiritual truth which underlies the apostles conceptions and arguments, an attempt most praise- worthy in our judgment, but often leading him to disregard the forat of Pauls thoughts. We like the theology of this com- mentary better than its exegesis. It is well to point out the vital and spiritual contents of Pauls thought-forms, but it is not well to explain away those forms or to make them identical with our own. For practical purposes the essential content is the main interest, but for critical and historical interpretation, it is needful to follow the very lines of the apostles own thinking, and, for the time, to run our thought into his moulds. We think Dr. Abbott has too frequently run Pauls thought into his own moulds. The work is one of much vigor and vivacity. It is an excellent and useful book, but it takes too little account of the peculiarities of the apostles thought to be always reliable for critical study. Paul was certainly a mystic, but not a nine- teenth century mystic. his mysticism was determined in its pe- culiarities by both his Jewish training and his own qualities of mind. His modes of reasoning were largely forensic, and the forensic interpreters so far have an advantage in interpreting his forms of thought, though they have always been in danger of identifying the forms with the substance and of building their systems as much upon the former as upon the latter. The volume is nearly equally divided between expository re- marks and essays or e~rcursus on topics related to the course of thought in the epistle or bearing more generally upon the apos- tles doctrine. The strictures which we should pass upon the work are no disparagement of its deep spiritual earnestness and practical helpfulness. GEORGE B. STEVENS. STEARNS INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT* is a brief handbook designed as a guide for the students of the English Old Testament. The general character of each book is succinctly described, its contents analyzed, and the literary and historical problems connected with it indicated. Copious references are given to literature bearing upon the various books as well as to discussions of special topics connected with them. * Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament. By 0. S. STEARNS, D.D., Pro- fessor in Newton Theological Institution. Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston. pp. 148 72 Current Literature. [Jan. Great difficulties beset the preparation of a really useful volume of this kind. There are so many problems connected with the subjects treated that to omit them and try to state only what is certain often reduces the authors affirmations to a few meagre generalities. The shortest section is that noted as 5, under the article on Canticles. It reads: Difficultiesmany and unsolva- ble. Within the limits which the author set for himself he has cer- tainly provided the student who seeks a general familiarity with Old Testament literature with much useful information and still further, has pointed out to him the sources from which he may obtain an immense amount of discussion and argument, if not always, information. GEORGE B. STEVENS. DR. BRADFORDS SPIRIT AND LIFE.*~~The best modern preaching deals with spiritual wants and vital truths. Judged by this test the sermons before us are worthy to be classed among the best sermons of the day. The author is already well known to the churches, and is respected and beloved for the catholicity of his spirit, for his Christian benevolence and enterprise, and for the sincerity, earnestness, and manliness of his preaching. The vol- ume before us discloses the heart of a Christian pastor and lets us into the secret of the hold he has upon his people and the influ- ence he exerts beyond the borders of his parish. The sermons are fresh, concrete, earnest, practical. They are constructed ac- cording to no conventional standard, but utter themselves natu- rally and freely and simply. The author had something which was important to himself, and which he regarded as important to say, and he has said it with a tone of reality and a straight- forwardness which are very attractive. The sermons are not elaborate, but suggestive. They deal not with arguments but with experience. They are not and do not profess to be pro- found, but they are helpful. Their range is not great but their insight is good. In rhetorical quality they are sometimes homely but they are vigorous and here and there are passages of genuine eloquence. L. 0. BRAsTow. * Spirit and Ltfe. Thoughts for to-day. By AMORY H. BRADFORD, D.D., First Congregational Church, Montclair, N. J. New York: Fords, Howard & Hul- bert. 1888.

72 Current Literature. [Jan. Great difficulties beset the preparation of a really useful volume of this kind. There are so many problems connected with the subjects treated that to omit them and try to state only what is certain often reduces the authors affirmations to a few meagre generalities. The shortest section is that noted as 5, under the article on Canticles. It reads: Difficultiesmany and unsolva- ble. Within the limits which the author set for himself he has cer- tainly provided the student who seeks a general familiarity with Old Testament literature with much useful information and still further, has pointed out to him the sources from which he may obtain an immense amount of discussion and argument, if not always, information. GEORGE B. STEVENS. DR. BRADFORDS SPIRIT AND LIFE.*~~The best modern preaching deals with spiritual wants and vital truths. Judged by this test the sermons before us are worthy to be classed among the best sermons of the day. The author is already well known to the churches, and is respected and beloved for the catholicity of his spirit, for his Christian benevolence and enterprise, and for the sincerity, earnestness, and manliness of his preaching. The vol- ume before us discloses the heart of a Christian pastor and lets us into the secret of the hold he has upon his people and the influ- ence he exerts beyond the borders of his parish. The sermons are fresh, concrete, earnest, practical. They are constructed ac- cording to no conventional standard, but utter themselves natu- rally and freely and simply. The author had something which was important to himself, and which he regarded as important to say, and he has said it with a tone of reality and a straight- forwardness which are very attractive. The sermons are not elaborate, but suggestive. They deal not with arguments but with experience. They are not and do not profess to be pro- found, but they are helpful. Their range is not great but their insight is good. In rhetorical quality they are sometimes homely but they are vigorous and here and there are passages of genuine eloquence. L. 0. BRAsTow. * Spirit and Ltfe. Thoughts for to-day. By AMORY H. BRADFORD, D.D., First Congregational Church, Montclair, N. J. New York: Fords, Howard & Hul- bert. 1888.

NEW ENGLANDER AND YALE REVIEW. No. CCXXVII. FEBRUARY, 1889. ARTICLE 1. PROFESSOR SHEDDS DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. Dogmatic Theology. By W. G. T. SHEDD, D.iD., Professor of Systematic Theology in Union Theological Seminary, New York. Two vols. Charles Scribners Sons. New York, 1888. Svo, pp. 546, 803. THERE are two classes of inquiries which every work on Sys- tematic Theology which appears in our time must meet. One relates to the Biblical, the other to the philosophical ground- work of the system. Biblical criticism will no longer pass un- challenged the use of proof-texts which do not legitimately establish the propositions maintained, nor will the philosophical spirit of our time accept the metaphysics of theology without close inquiry as to its rational grounds. We have before us the latest product of American Doctrinal Theology, in two portly volumes. The author is distinguished by his previous contri.. butions to theological literature and by his long period of service VOL. XIV. 6 74 Shedds Dogmatic Theology. [Feb., as Professor in two of our foremost theological institutions. He is well known as a leading representative of the type of theology of which Augustine and Calvin are the great historic exponents. He avows his adherence (Pref., pp. vi. vii.) to it as against the more modern modes of thought in theology, de- claring his conviction that in former ages there were some men who thought more deeply, and came nearer to the center of truth upon some subjects, than any modern minds. Whatever may be thought of the opinions advocated, it will not be doubted that the authors labors are characterized by deep seriousness and intense conviction regarding the themes treated. The sense of the importance of the great problems of Christian Theology which pervades Dr. Shedds volumes, en- titles the spirit and purpose of his treatise to the respect of all who dissent from his opinions. The doctrinal position of the. author makes it especially desirable to consider some of the Biblical and philosophical phases of his system. This it shall be our aim to do, trusting that the selection of points of special present interest here and there will not be taken as indicat- ing what we might say of other parts of the work. The chapter on Bibliology whose main topics are Revela- tion and Inspiration first enlists our attention. Revelation is dis- tinguished as general or unwritten, and special or written. The former kind of revelation is fallible because of human deprav- ity and limitations in appropriating it (p. 66). In the case of written revelation freedom from error is secured by inspiration. Those who are the organs of special revelation are also inspired to express and record the revelation infallibly (pp. 70, 71). One might ask why the distinction between unwritten and writ- ten should make all the difference between fallible and infalli- ble revelation. If fallible and depraved men are in both cases made the organs of divine revelation, how is it that the imper- fections of the media should in all cases of unwritten revelation so affect the result as to render it fallible and in no case so affect the written result in any manner or degree? Might not one, in conceivable and perhaps in actual cases, be as infallibly in- spired to speak or to act as to write? In these assumed dis- tinctions, of which it is almost too little to say that no proof is given, lie the germs of the authors whole theory of the Bible. 1889.] Shedd8 Dogmatic Theology. 75 Inspiration and infallibility must be confined and limited to the Book. It must therefore be carefully denied at the outset that they can pertain to any person for any purpose except for that of writing a part of the Bible. All this is done by simple a priori dogmatic definition. The authors view is that inspiration secures inerrancy. All this Biblical history, chronology, and geography, differs from corresponding matter in uninspired literature, by being unmixed with error (p. 69). Jnspired men may obtain their informa- tion either by divine revelation or in ordinary ways, but in- spiration insures freedom from error in presenting the truth which has been obtained (p. 70). In this connection it is said that inspiration goes no further than this, i. e., no further than to guard from error, but on page 85 it is stated that inspir- ation differs from regeneration, in that the aim (of inspiration) is not to impart holiness, but information. This shows that inspiration is only intellectual illumination. They (the Biblical writers) had a perfect knowledge on the points respect- ing which they were inspired (p. 85). Passing the point that to inspiration is assigned, in these two different connections, widely differing range and functions, the matter of chief inter- est is to see by what arguments the absolute freedom from error on the part of the Scripture writers, even extending to perfect chronology and geography, is supported. After the Westminster Confession is cited in evidence, seven passages of Scripture are cited as proofs of the infallibility of the Scriptures (p. 73). They are: II Tim. iii. 16, All Scripture is given by inspiration of God. Those who are skeptical as to Dr. Shedds theory will make at least three abatements from the force of this passage for the authors pur- pose: (1) That the passage should be translated as in the R. V.: Every scripture inspired of God is also profitable for teach- lug, etc., where the jproftablene8s of scripture is the main quality affirmed and where no declaration of the scope of inspiration is necessarily found. (2) That, at most, the state- ment can in strictness refer only to the Old Testament. (3) That it predicates inspiration of the Scriptures and not infalli.. bility and hence has no bearing on the particular theory of in- spiration required to be proved. The second proof is: ileb. 76 Shedds Dogmatic Theology~ [Feb., i. 1, 2, God, who at sundry times and in divers manners, spake in times past nnto the fathers by the prophets, hath in these last times spoken nnto us by his Son. That this passage asserts that a revelation was made through certain Biblical writers (thongh the terms are not so specific as to be limited to those who wrote) may be maintained, but that it asserts, im- plies, or suggests the idea of the absolute infallibility of any, to say nothing of all Biblical authors, could never be imagined by anyone who was not under the spell of an a priori theory and under much stress for proofs. The next is I Cor. ii. 13, Which things we speak, not in the words which mans wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost teach- eth. The connection here must have escaped the authors attention. The chapter is a description of the method and spirit of Pauls preaching at Corinth when he founded the church there, and if his language implied any claim on Pauls part to infallible knowledge of religious truth so as to make it a cogent proof-text for establishing the infallibility of the apostle, it would establish that infaliibility primarily for hi~ preaching and would so far imperil rather than support Dr. Shedds theory of exclusively infallible written revelation. The reader must judge of the force of the other four proofs of infallibility, upon whose use for the definition in question I forbear to comment. They are: II Pet. i. 21, Holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost; John v. 39, Search the Scriptures (which however should read: Ye search the Scriptures, as the context shows and as the R. V. and most modern scholars render); Rom. iii. 2, Unto them were committed the oracles of God ; Isa. viii. 22, Look ye to the law and to the testimony.~~ The proof, and the whole proof of the theory in question is before the reader. There are quotations from theologians and affirmations by the author, but everything of the nature of argument is presented above (vid. p. 73). With the merits of the theory presented we are not here concerned. We do not hesitate to say, however, that the theory as maintained by Dr. Shedd is not deduced from the Scriptures, but is of a purely a priori character and is unsupported by any arguments which approach to the nature of cogent evidence. The theory is implicitly con- 1889.1 Shedd8 Dogmatic Theology. 77 taii~ed in the definitions and assumptions with which the discus- sion starts. There are three presuppositions (vid. pp. 7477) which yield the theory in advance entirely independent of any question of evidence or fact. They are: (1.) The difficulty of distinguishing and assigning values higher and lower to what Dr. Shedd calls the primary and secondary elements of Scripture, i. e., of distinguishing between elements of human imperfection and the essential contents of divine truth. No such distinction, in Dr. Shedds opinion, can be made or ap- plied. The primary and the secondary, the doctrinal and the historical elements of Scripture, stand or fall together (p. 75). (2.) It is a priori improbable that God would permit any inaccu- racy to cleave to his revelation. (3.) This is the easiest theory to maintain. It is certain that from an a priori standing-point this last consideration is the great attraction of the view taken. But what shall be said of the numberless conflicts with undeni- able fact into which the theory brings us? It is easiest to main- tain in mere definition and assertion, but not in the face of in- ductive investigation and historic fact. To make close and diffi- cult discriminations, such as an inductive theory of inspiration is obliged to undertake, may not be a welcome task, but the mak- ing of difficult distinctions is not a necessity from which the conscientious student and investigator should think himself ab- solved. His method will have the great disadvantage of being difficult, and will, of course, be liable to error, but it has the advantage of helping on religious thought toward a theory which shall square with the phenomena of the Bible as deter- mined by patient and prolonged historic research and criticism, as opposed to that purely rationalistic procedure which grounds its views of the Bible on the necessities of a speculative system of theology. It has the further advantage of commending it- self to the scientific spirit of our age, of fostering respect for theological methods, and of commending the Bible, as it is, to those minds which, though not averse to evangelical religion, are weary of those claims of formal infallibility in record, chronology, and geography which all study of the Bible dis- proves. A single additional example of the discussion of this subject should be adduccd before we pass to another point. The author 78 Skeide Dog?natic Theology. remarks (p. 77) that the fact that the skeptic can ask a ques- tion which the believer cannot answer, is not proof that the skeptics own position is the truth, or that the believers posi- tion is false. Axiomatically true! But the so-called skeptic might readily reply with the equally obvious truth that the mere affirmation of a proposition by a theologian is not proof that the theologians own position is the truth. So too, Dr. Shedds statement that the unsolved difficulties respecting in- spiration have often been palmed off as positive arguments for his own position, by the unbeliever (p. 77) ought, in perfect fairness to all sides, to be supplemented by its correlative fact that the unverified assertions of theologians have often been palmed off as established propositions. We pass to the description of the way in which the infallibil- ity of the Biblical record has been secured. In general, this was done by the inspiration of a few select individuals. Neither the Hebrew people nor the Christian church, as a whole, en- joyed the gift of divine inspiration. In this connection certain errors on the part of those who assign a wider scope to in- spiration are noted, and, first of all, the error of Weiss who assumes that the gospels, primarily, were the product of the primitive church as a whole, not of the Apostolic circle exclu- sively. Weisss error leads him to the view that the four gospels were not composed directly or indirectly by four Apos~tle8, and that the primitive account of Christs words and deeds was very fragmentary, and was subsequently sup- plemented and worked over into the four gospels as the Church now has them (p. 82). in opposition to this view, Dr. Shedd declares that the twelve Apostles were expressly commissioned by their master, to prepare an account (italics his) of his life and teachings and were promised divine aid and guidance in doing it, and for the proof of this commission direct from Christ, to write the four gospel8, Dr. Shedd cites Matt. x. 520, the narrative which contains the charge to the twelve when sent out on their missionary tour; John xiv. 25, 26, the promise of the Spirit (which, Of course, applies to the disciples in general) and xv. 1315: Greater love has no man than this, etc. From the remoteness of this quotation from the point in hand. 1889.] Shedds Dogmatic Theology. 79 we infer that some other passage must have been intende& But the climax of this account of the origin of the Gospels is reached in the affirmation that this teaching of the Apostles (i. e., the common narrative of the twelve Apostles respect- ing the life, teachings, and miracles of their Lord, p. 83) was committed to writing by thaw four of the twelve Apoetles to whom the four canonical gospels have been attributed for nearly twenty centuries (p. 84). We think it unfortunate for Dr. Shedd to have undertaken a criticism of the views of Weiss, the most eminent New Tes- tament specialist in Germany. That Weiss has given the sub- stantially correct account of the origin of our gospels as de- termined by the scholarship of modern tiines,in contrast to the utterly groundless and obsolete opinions of our author, is known to all students of the subject. The prologue of Lukes gospel distinctly asserts that many had written narra- tives of our Lords doings and sayings, prior to the writing of his gospel, which is precisely what Weiss states when he speaks of the primitive accounts of Christs words and deeds as very fragmentary. The statement that the writers of the four gospels were directly commissioned by Christ to write these narratives is without a shadow of proof, and is sought to be supported by a most flagrant misuse of texts. We can, however, see that the exigencies of theory seeni to demand even this groundless assertion. But the statement that the four gospels were written by four of the twelve Apostles (p. 84), is so astonishing a misstatement of fact that we have been at a loss how to account for it. Mark and Luke were not of the Twelve, nor were they Apostles in that more loose and comprehensive sense in which the word is applied to Paul and James, the Lords brother. Only three of the twelve Apostles Matthew, Peter, and Johnwrote any part of the New Tes- tament, and six of the nine New Testament writers were out- side the circle of the Twelve. Our first thought was that Dr. Shedd intended to ascribe Marks gospel to Peter because of the Church tradition which associates Mark with that Apostle. But there is no evidence that Peter was in any sense the writer of the gospel, and even then Luke is left unexplained. If Lukes gospel is called Pauls, as it is by Chrysostomn, the diffi 80 Shedd8 Dogmatic Theology. [Feb., culty that Paul was not one of the Twelve, remains. In the prologue of his gospel, moreover, Luke distinctly classes him- self among the many~~ to whom had been handed down the apostolic tradition and not among the eye-witnesses ; that is, he places himself in the post-apostolic period. We have consulted a number of scholars upon the question as to what Dr. Shedd could have meant by this astonishing statement, and have received no suggestion. The ground or possibility of such an assertion by a reputable theologian as that the four gospels were written by four of the twelve Apos- tles, remains to us an insoluble mystery. In further reference to Weisss opinions, Shedd gives it as a part of Weisss view that there was an original Mark. This opinion Weiss does not hold, but combats in every treatise which he has ever pub- lished touching the subject. In proof we quote from his latest work (Einleitung in dac N. 7., p. 509): True as it is that the hypothesis of a primitive Mark appears to explain more easily many phenomena in the relation of our parallel texts and, through the assumption of two independent sources, to simplify the synoptic problem, yet the same must be abandoned because it cannot be brought into any satisfactory form and only raises greater difficulties, as even its originator has in substance ad- mitted. The entire space at our command might be occupied with pointing out the inaccuracies and unproved assertions in this chapter on Inspiration. A few further examples are the fol- lowing: Luke wrote his gospel under the superintendence of Paul (p. 83). It would be interesting to hear Dr. Shedds proof of this. Again: Immer, ilermeneutics, p. 18, argues against the infallibility of Paul because of the failure of his memory in regard to a certain particular (I Cor. xiv. 16). Be- cause the apostle could not remember how many persons he had baptized, therefore his teaching in I Cor. xv. respecting the resurrection is fallible. Upon the same principle he should deny St. Pauls infallibility because he was ignorant of the steam engine or telegraph (p. 87, note). Does Dr. Shedd really suppose that he is here treating Immers language with fairness? That critic, in the place referred to, alludes to the fact that Paul does not claim infallibility for himself and adds 1889.] Shedd8 Dogmatic Theology. 81 that a lapeus memorice could befall him. He argues nothing whatever from this fact beyond what the fact contains. Dr. Shedd now saddles upon Dr. Immer, by implication and as a legitimate conclusion of his statements of fact, the fallibility of Pads doctrine of the resurrection. A conclusion is drawn by Dr. Shedd himself a thousand times as large as Immers statements warrant, and held up to the reader as a specimen of Immers irreverence for Biblical teaching. Whatever irrever- ence is excited by this method of controversy will not be di- rected toward those against whom it is employed. Immer simply states a fact. Does Dr. Shedd deny it? He cannot. The statements are statements of fact, not of theory. What then? He proceeds to draw an enormous and totally unwar- ranted conclusion from Immers statement and to impute it to him with all the implications of false logic which the conclu- sion suggests. It is but just to remark that the false logic at- taches to the person by whom the conclusion was drawn, which, in this case, was not Immer. We find among the curiosities of this chapter the statement that the author of Proverbs denominates the second trinita- nan person Wisdom (p. 91), which requires the supposition that this writer was a Trinitarian; and the assertion that Scrip- ture itself asserts verbal inspiration (p. 93), with proofs which are exegetically as inconclusive as those heretofore ad- verted to. Our author is not insensible to the difficulties which beset his theory. He considers first the objection from errors and discrepancies in the Bible. He seems to admit discrepancies but he meets the difficulty by the principle that the correc- tion of a book by itself is different from its correction by other books (p. 93). The Bible is self-rectifying. The book fur- nishes materials for its own verification. When Scripture ex- plains, or if need be, corrects Scripture, the divine explains and verifies the divine; inspiration explains inspiration; spiritual things are compared with spiritual, I Cor. ii. 13 (p. 94). If we understand this principle it means that if one book of the Bible corrects an error in another book, then there is no error at all. Now this maxim has a certain true sense and use. If the morality of the Sermon on the Mount, for example, cor 82 Shedds Dogmatic Theology. [Feb.~ rects that of the Pentateuch, then the BiUical morality is to be judged from the higher standard and stage of revelation. The principle is properly applied to the truthfulness and trust- worthiness of the Bible as a whole. But in connection with Dr. Shedds theory of verbally infallible inspiration it is a boomerang. The Bible rectiftes itself, i. e. one part corrects another part, which is an admission that the other part was so far wrong. When Dr. Shedd wrote: When Scripture ex- plains, or if need be, corrects Scripture, why did he add the divine explains and ver~fies the divine, instead of keeping to the terms of his protasis and saying,~ the divine explains and corrects the divine? Does he avoid following out the admis- sions of the maxim implied in rectifying and correcting in the consciousness that they cut the ground from underneath his theory of inspiration? This is, at any rate, the fact. The Bible cannot be in all points and parts infallible, if it is a self-rectifying and self-correcting book. The maxim in the sense in which it is a true and proper one is absolutely in - consistent with Shedds whole theory, and in the only sense in which it would harmonize with his theory it is conspicuously false and absurd. The author has a remarkable method of dealing with the New Testament citations from the Old. He admits that the New Testament writers sometimes vary in the use of their citations from the original meaning, but says that these varia- tions are not erroneous because they are intentional (p. 100). They were divinely guided to vary from the sense of the orig- inal. The maxim requires the supposition that divine inspira- tion sometimes directed the New Testament writers to quote from the Septuagint where it differs materially from the orig- inal, to quote passages from one book which are found in an- other, and even to give, as quotations from Scripture, passages not found in the Old Testament at all. These must certainly be extreme cases where since the divine corrects the divine, there can be no inaccuracy. We may add that this whole apol- ogetic assumes a kind of unity for the Bible which is not ac- cording to fact and treats the statements of the various books as if they were all and severally the utterances in some way of a half-personified unity which has such a personal identity that 1889.1 8kedds Dogmatic Theology. 83 what it says at one time it supplements or corrects, like an in- divisible ego, at another. It will not be inferred by any candid reader that, in making these strictures, we are detracting from the inspiration or au- thority of the Scriptures. There is a true doctrine of inspira- tion, which, whatever difficulties may attend it, is deduced from Scripture and adjusted to the results of history and criticism and not superimposed upon Scripture. This theory may not be so hard and fast as Dr. Shedds because it holds itself sub- ject to modification as investigation proceeds, but not less than Dr. Shedds, it maintains for the Holy Scriptures a unique char- acter and a paramount authority. It lays its chief emphasis, not upon a formal infallibility of record and chronology, but upon the essential content of divine revelation contained in the Bible. This is the view which, as a matter of fact, is making progress and winning consent. We pass from these notices of the theory concerning the Bible to some of the uses made of it in establishing doctrine. We open Vol. II at the chapter on Vicarious Atonement (p. 378). The passages are first cited in which the vicariousness of Christs sufferings is denoted by the preposition d& (instead of). The first is IMIatt. xx. 28, The Son of Man came to give His life a ransom for (di.~r~) many. This is right. It should, however, be remarked that the use of the preposition meaning tnstead of is determined by the figure of the ~ansorr& -p~ice implying the notion of payment and exchange (so in the oniy two passages where this preposition is used of the sacrifice of Christ. Cf. the use of dvriAorpoi., I Tim. ii. 6). The next ele- ment of Scripture proof stands thus: Matt. x. 45, This is my body which is given for (ch.~r~) you. Turning to Matt. x. 45 we find that the reference is wrongly given. Perhaps iWark x. 45 is intended. Turning to it we find some evidence that it was meant, for here di.r? is used (and here only, besides the pas- sage above cited, in application to Christs sacrifice), but the passage is simply the parallel to Matt. xx. 28 (above cited) and contains the same words. It cannot be intended to cite this a second time. Turning next to Luke xxii. 19, where the words cited: This is my body, etc., occur, we find the passage evi- dently intended, but there the preposition ~ is not found in 84 Shedds Dogmatic Theology. [Feb., any known manuscript or text of the New Testament. What, then, are the peculiarities of this use of Scripture? Under Matt. x. 45, Luke xxii. 19 is cited; instead of the preposition 6w~p found in Luke xxii. 19, dvr~ is introduced from Mark x. 45. But Mark x. 45 is parallel and identical with Matt. xx. 28 already cited. Thus by this three-fold error it is made to ap- pear that there are two passages where d4-~ is used of Christs sacrifice, whereas there is but one (i. e. two parallel passages identical in terms) and in that case the preposition is explained by the figure as above indicated. We do not mean to reflect at all upon Dr. Shedds doctrinal opinion in question here, but we may venture to express, in general, our apprehension re- garding results attained in the process of such exegesis. We turn to the chapter on Justification and are confronted early in the chapter (p. 543) with the statement of the West- minster Confession: God justifieth, not by imputing faith itself, the act of believing, but by imputing the obedience and satisfaction of Christ. The statement, especially the denial that God imputes faith itself in justification, has always inter- ested me in connection with the proof-texts which are cited to support it in the Confession, among which are: Rom. iv.5, sq., But to him that worketh not, but believeth on him that justi- fieth the ungodly, his faith is counted (i. e. imputed) for right- eousness. Six times in the fourth of IRomans alone faith is said to be imputed for righteousness, not to mention the same statement several times repeated in Galatian~ and in the epistle of James (ii. 23). Pauls doctrine is explicitly that of the imputation of faith. The motive for denying the Apostles plain and oft-repeated statement, in Calvinistic theology, was to avoid the danger of adi~itti~ that anything which man was able to do (e. g. his exercise of faith) could become the cause of his salvation. The motive was worthy in itself, but the neces- sity of practicing such violence upon Pauls statments would have been removed by rightly apprehending his doctrine of faith, which by its very nature excludes the claim or possibility of human merit in salvation. In its very nature, faith is not a human achievement whereby man can mount into Gods favor, but a humble and trustful reception of Gods mercy in Christ. IDr. Shedd is still committed to this old misapprehension and 1889.] Shedds Dogmatic Theology. 85 flatly denies Pauls statements in order to avoid dangers which those statements, in their true meaning and intention, do not require or even permit. This denial is not necessary. Pauls system coheres well together. The correct meaning and force of Pauls language are rightly stated by Gerhard in comment- ing upon his doctrine of the imputation of faith: The apos- tle is speaking of faith, not as it is a quality inhering in us (for in that respect it does not justifly, since it is obedience to only one commandment, is imperfect, and long already due), but as it apprehends the redemption of Christ. Since Christ and faith are said to be at the same time our righteousness, the conse- quence is that faith is and is called our righteousness, because it apprehends Christs righteousness and makes it ours. The old formula that we are justified by the imputation to us of Christs merit which may have so profound and true a meaning, is expounded by Dr. Shedd with that formal and forensic one- sidedness in which it is difficult to find the real spiritual con- tent of the Biblical doctrine. The principal philosophical interest of the book centers in the authors realistic theory of human nature according to which all mankind were actually present in Adam and voluntarily committed his first sin. A few of Dr. Shedds definitions of this doctrine may interest the reader. Man was originally one single human nature, which by propagation became mill- ions of persons (II. T7). Each human person is a pcirtiom of the human nature, etc. (II. 78) Adam and Eve were two human persons created by God on the sixth day. In and with them God also created the entire invisible nature of the human species; the masculine side of it in Adam, the feminine in Eve(II. 78). This son (Cain) was an individualized part of the psychico-physical nature which was created and included in the parents. Abel was another individualized part, (II. 79). By ordinary generation, the specific nature was further sub- divided and individualized into millions of persons (II. 78). Human nature is then capable of separation into parts. All human nature was in the first pair and the various portions composing it have ever since been separated off by propagation until the distribution has now mounted up to countless mill- ions. And each part of this undistributed nature of which any 86 Skedds Dogmatic Theology. [Feb., particular individual consists, was present in Adam, who had all humanity in himself, in such a sense that it could actually and voluntarily participate in his sin and incur guilt and con- demnation in consequence of its commission of that sin. This first sin in both of its parts, internal and external, is imputed to Adam and his posterity as sin and guilt, because they commit- ted it. (II. 181). To the objection that, if we were in Adam, we must have conunitted all his sins as well as the first, Dr. Shedd replies that the first sin differed from all subsequent ones by being a violation of the probationary statute, while the others were only violations of the moral law. We should like to have been informed wherein the probationary statute differed from moral law. If it was not a moral law, how could its transgres- sion be the deepest and direst of sins? The fact seems to be that Dr. Shedd here falls back upon the theory of Adams representative headship, which he elsewhere rejects, in order to parry this objection. He places the first sin in a category by itself. This statute and this transgression alone were to test the obedience of the race. (II. 88). He is here availing him- self of the federal theory, that Adam, in the first trial, stood as a representative of the race. This he is obliged to do. If we were really in Adam, we were as really in him after the first sin as before, and as truly participated in his subsequent sins as in his first. On Dr. Shedds theory he cannot answer this objection. He can do so only by resorting to a theory which he elsewhere repudiates. A glaring inconsistency is then left in his system. But he has another reason. Only the first act of sin is imputed, because the entire posterity were in Adam and Eve when it was committed, but ceased to be in them afterwards (II. 88). But this explanation does not cover the period between the first trangression and the birth of Cain. All human nature was in Adam and Eve up to the time when a portion of the nature went off in Cain. The sins of the undistributed nature must pertain to that nature, on Dr. Shedds own premises, until it begins to be distributed. Moreover, the separation from the mass of a part of the nature in the birth of Cain, does not affect what was left. IDr. Shedd says that the 1889.] Shedd8 Dogmatic Theology. 87 conception of the first individual of the species destroys the original unity (II. 89). Yes, but after Cain was born, every- body else was left in Adam. The rest of us were not in- dividnalixed yet, and many of us did not become so for a long period. It is vain to say in explanation that Cain was no longer in Adam ; We were there just the same, and Dr. Shedd does not show how or why it is that, if we continued to be in Adam, we did not continue to commit his sins, and we venture to say that, on his principles, he cannot. If the will of Adam ever had in it my will in such a sense that I could literally sin when he sinned, it had it so as truly and in the same sense in the second transgression as in the first, and as truly after, as before, Cains birth. For if I was any less there after than before, then some portion of me must have been carried off by Cain in his differentiation which brings us to a view never claimed by the theory. If this individualization of Cain alters the status or condition of those portions of the nature which are left, it must be because he carries away with him so much of that nature as shall be distributed in his own descendants to the end of time. In that case Cains descendents would derive their human nature from him and why would they not on the prem- ises of this realism be guilty of his sins? If we sinned in Adam as this theory claims, Dr. Shedd is powerless to show that we did not sin also in all our other ancestors unless he resort for explanation to the theory of federal headship. In further reply to this objection, Dr. Shedd says that in case the sins of Adam, between the first sin and the birth of Cain were imputed at all, the imputation would not lie upon any individual persons of the posterity, for there are none, but only upon the non-individualized nature (II. 90). But neither were there any individualized persons~~ except Adam and Eve, in the nature which committed the first sin. Why- then, should the imputation of this s~in lie upon the mdi- vidual persons? Surely if non-individualization is a protec- tion against the imputation of Adams sins to persons, that protection must apply to the effect of the first sin as well as to that of subsequent ones. But enough! We do not forget Dr. Shedds maxim that difficulties, attaching to an hypothesis, do not necessarily dis 88 Shedd8 Dogmatic Theology. [Feb., prove it; nor are we at all skeptical in regard to mysteries, but we cannot help thinking that something depends upon the na- ture and magnitude of the difficulties. Dr. Shedds theory purports to be an explanation; but is an explanation which does not explain. New difficulties spring up at every step of the solution; until at last the whole theory, mingled with in- congruous elements from rival theories, and laden with a mass of difficulties which it is utterly powerless to support, breaks down hopelessly from its own weight. it would seem that the mind which can bind upon itself the burdens of this theory need not shrink back from any opinion known to the history of spec- ulative thought, by reason of rational obstacles to belief. Dr. Shedds doctrine of the atonement is familiar to students of theology from an extended essay on the subject published some years since. It is built upon the postulate that to be just is a necessity of Gods nature, but to be benevolent is a matter of choice. A sharp antithesis is affirmed between these two attributes and atonement is correlated to justice, not to benev- olence (II. 434). We deem the theory subject to two great difficulties: (1) It cannot explain the genesis of redemption. If this antithesis between justice and mercy exists in God, and justice must always be strictly carried out, how can mercy make itself successfully heard or win the day against the requirement of inexorable justice which demands the sinner s punishment? Either the nature of God and the meaning of his justice are wrongly defined here, or the definitions are not carried to their logical conclusions, which would hopelessly shut out mercy for the sinner. If it is answered that justice i~ done in that Christ is punished for us, then a second difficulty, greater than the first, confronts us: (2) the principle of strict justice is snum cuique. How can another in mere juetice be punished for my sin? It is a contradictio in adjecto. If the action of God in relation to hmnan sin is to proceed on the basis of mere justice, and if the atonement is correlated only to that attribute, then somehow Christ and the sinner must be one in such a sense that when Christ is punished the sinner is pun- ished also. Penal justice requires the einner8 punishment; if he is not punished, then the plan by which he is liberated from penalty is correlated to some other attribute of God, besides 1889.] Skedds Dogmatic Theology. 89 mere retributive justice, since retributive justice is not literally carried out. The theory thus topples over. An impression, not wholly incorrect, of the authors escha- tology may be conveyed by the fact that his chapter on Heaven consists of two pages, while that on Hell contains eighty-eight. Upon the general contents of these chapters we will not tarry further than to mention two points, viz: (1) that Dr. Shedd espouses the obsolescent opinion, that Sheol and Hades denote, in most cases, the same as Gehenna or Hell, that is, that they are used specifically of the place or state of eternal punishment; (2) that he seems to leave room for the salvation of all infants dying in infancy, by speaking of the supposition, now common in the Evangelical Churches, that all infants, dying in infancy, being elect, are regenerated and saved by Christ through the Spirit, who worketh when, and where, and how he pleaseth (West. Conf. X. 3). Dr. Shedds divergence at this point, from the Confession, is noticeable. There we read: Elect infants, dying in infancy, are regenerated, etc. Dr. Shedd makes pos- sible the inference that his own belief is, that all infants, being elect, are regenerated, a materially different position from that which the Confession meant to affirm, a position, moreover, which is utterly baseless if Dr. Shedds theory of sin be cor- rect. It is not strange that he passes over the subject of infant- salvation with a single non-committal sentence. There is no logical place in his system for the supposition now common that all infants are elect and saved. Does Dr. Shedd be- lieve that they are? He has refrained from expressing a posi- tive opinion. It is more creditable to his consistency if he holds with the plain and intended implication of the Confession that some infants, dying in infancy, are elect, and others lost. It is well known that the supposition now common on this subject is the spontaneous outcome of Christian feeling, and is, in no measure, due to the type of theology which Dr. Shedd represents, but has come to prevail in spite of it. At this point the Calvinistic theology fails to have that courage of its own definitions and methods, which it once had, and either intro- duces some lame and illogical explanation, or, as Dr. Shedd does, throws in an evasive reference to the common supposm voL. xiv. 7 90 Shedds Dogrnatw Theology. [Feb., tion, which his system would, however, render, in the highest degree, improbable. We desire here to direct attention to Dr. Shedds treatment of the German theologians Dorner and Muller. He calls attention (II. 701) to statements like this from Dorner: No one will be damned merely on account of the common sin and guilt. But everyone is definitely brought to [guilty in- serted by Dr. S.] personal decision only through the gospel. From this Dr. Shedd infers the following: This implies that mans sin against the moral law is not sufficient to con- demn him to eternal death. He must sin against the gospel before he can be so condemned (II. 701, note). Whether this is a fair statement of Dorners position may be judged by the following quotations from that theologian (Syst. Chn. Doct., III. 72, 73; II. 178 in original). But from this position of Christ as the one who brings the crisis and the one against whom alone the highest guilt can be committed, it does not fol- low that evil prior to Christ was not evil in the proper sense, was not laden with guilt and culpability, though in a different degree o~ measure, and did not therefore make atonement nec- essary. As little right as the sinful creature has to the grace of God and to liberation from punishment, so little is the administration of grace or punishment arbitrary, rather is it bound up with ethical laws; and since the sin is undoubtedly more heavy and criminal which opposes itself in scorn and defiance to the highest demonstration of love, to forgiving, nay, atoning love, it is conformable with justice that decision should be judged according to the relation to Christ. The following points, then, concerning Dorners opinions are to be noted: (1) Sin prior to and apart from Christsin against the moral laws aloneis guilty and exposes the soul to just divine punishment. Dr. Shedd denies that this is a part of Dorners view, and by inserting the word guilty in the sentence quoted places upon his statement an entirely incorrect emphasis. Dorners mean- ing is that the final decision of the souls destiny is determined only by its attitude towards Christ. Dr. Shedd makes him say that the soul is not determined as guilty by the common sin but only by the rejection of Christ. Dr. Shedd states as Dorners view, that the common sin and guilt sin which is not the 1889.1 Shedde Dogmatic Theology. 91 personal rejection of Christ does not deserve endless punish- ment and is not in danger of it(II. ~O2) but Dorner himself says that this sin is laden with guilt and culpability, makes atonement necessary and that, on account of it, the sinner has no right to the grace of God or to liberation from punish- ment. (2) It is true that Dorner lays much stress upon the principle that, in the grace of God, Christ as the worlds Redeemer will, in some way, be made known to every soul before his final destiny shall be fixed, and that, since the hein- ousness of sin bears a proportion to the light bestowed upon men, the rejection of Christ, Gods highest revelation, is a sin above all other sins, and that, as matter of fact, this pitch of sin alone will actually condemn men to endless punishment. This is true, however, not as a matter of right or just claim on mans part, but as a matter of grace on Gods part. Dr. Shedd totally misrepresents Dorner when he states that this theologian holds that man has a right to demand salvation from the common sin and guilt. A part of this misrepresentation is due to the different senses in which the two theologians employ the word justice. Dorner does say that it is conformable with justice that the final decision of the souls destiny should be deter- mined only from its attitude toward Gods fullest revelation in Christ. But by justice Dorner means Gods rightnessall that makes him the perfect Being which he is, while with Shedd, justice is merely his attribute of right-doing in relation to mans desertsthe quid pro quo element of the divine nature as constrasted with benevolence. Justice with Dorner is Gods total perfection, and includes the ideas of benevolence and grace; with Shedd it is the antithesis of these. When, then, our author quotes Dorners language and assigns to his words the same range and application which he himself connects with the terms, he does him the greatest injustice. (3) Dr. Shedds charge that the soteriorology of Dorner and Muller is self- stultifying proceeds upon this radical misrepresentation of their principles. He says that both hold that sin is guilty and punishable and yet, in esehatology, both inconsistently repre- sent that the divine perfection requires that the offer of for- giveness be made, sooner or later, to every sinner; that there will be a defect in the benevolence and a blemish in the char- 92 Shedds Dogmatic Theology. [Feb., acter of the supreme Being, if he does not tender a pardon to every transgression of his law. Their esehatology thus contra- dicts their hamartiology(II. 704). That this statement is utterly unwarranted in regard to MUller we shall show pres- ently. In the ease of Dorner it has an appearance of justifi- cation only. Dorner does not contemplate any such possibility as that these should be a blemish in the character of God; he makes no such supposition and does not commit the absurdity of defending the divine Being against such a possible charge. His position is simply this: God is, as matter of fact, gracious and forgiving; that he will in his grace offer the possibility of salvation to all his creatures is a truth founded in his very nature as the perfectly good being; the contrary is inconceiv- able, God being what he is; his goodness to Himself, his jus- tice to his own benignity requires it, but this requirement springs wholly from within his own essence and is not founded upon any claim of mans part, and is not, therefore, a require- ment of justice towards man (as Shedd asserts that he teaches), but of jnstice towards his own nature as the gracious God. Shedds conception of the divine attributes is carried over into Dorners system. Dorners terms are compressed into the form and size which they have in his interpreters theology and then inferences are drawn from his language upon which meanings foreign to his thought have been foistedinferences which IDorner never could have recognized as a part of his system. The principle of Dorners soteriology is grace as truly as it is of Shedds. The difference is that Dorner holds that in some way Gods grace will afford the opportunity of salvation to all men, while Shedd holds that he will afford it 1~o some and with- hold it from others. There is some excuse for Dr. Shedds misstatement of Dor- ners position, since it is easy for one thinker to interpret the words of another according to the meanings which he himself assigns to them and thus to draw from them wholly unwar- ranted inferences; but we consider that his misinterpretation of Julius Muller is less excusable. In his Christian Doctrine of Sin (II. 400), Muller makes a criticism upon Dorners views of sin, as expressed in a review of this treatise, in which he points out the fact that Dorner had given too light an estimate 1889.1 Shedd8 Dogmatic Tkeology. 93 of the common sin and guilti. e., sin apart from Christ. In his System Dorner expressed himself more nearly in har- mony with Mullers own view and believed that he had guarded himself against Mullers objection. In their fullest utterances they are at harmony in principle, though they doubtless differ in their opinions of the degree of guilt to be assigned to sins which do not amount to rejection of Christ. How now is it possible for Dr. Shedd to charge upon IMililler the same defect of opin- ion on this point which he had himself pointed out and com- batted in the earlier utterances of Dorner? We will here quote a few sentences of MUllers discussion directed against expres- sions of Dorner which, be it remembered, Dorner subsequently modified. I, on the contrary, cannot think so lightly of man, even apart from redemption and his contact with it, but must maintain that his sin involves real and damnable guilt. . . . I do not, of course, deny that the greatest sins are possible only in relation to Christ; but wherever there is a conscious- ness of the moral law in its boldest outlines, and of its obliga- tion as unconditionally binding, there we have the necessary condition of actual guilt, and this the consciousness of the nat- ural man testifies. . . . The great blessing which Christ offers to man is reconciliation and the forgiveness of sin, but that re- conciliation and forgiveness clearly presuppose the presence of real guilt (II. 400). And yet Dr. Shedd can say that Muller discusses sin as an evil that is entitled to the offer of a pardon and a remedy(II. ~04), and can charge him with logical inconsistency and a self-stultifying soteriology! If some critic of Dr. Shedds system should declare that the author was an Arminian and Pelagian, the statement would not be more obviously incorrect than is Dr. Shedds representation of the theological position of Julius Muller. In connection with this expo& of the self-contradictions of Dorner and Muller, Dr. Shedd takes occasion to animadvert upon the deficiency in logical power and philosophical grasp of the German theologians. The reasoning is close, consecutive, and true in some sections; but loose, inconsequent, and false as a whole. The mind of the thinker when moving in the limited sphere, moves logically; but moving in the universe and at- tempting to construct a philosophy or theology of the Infinite, 94 Shedde Dogmatic Theology. fails utterly. The logical inconsistency of such theologians as Dorner and Muller is instanced in illustration. It is a happy circumstance that students of theology now have in their hands the antidote and corrective of the weak and incon- sequent reasonings of such men as Twesten, Nitzsch, Ebrard, iRothe, Dorner, and Julius Muller, men trained in the closest scientific exegesis and profound and life-long students of phi- losophy. That it is, these weak and inconsequent German theo- logians who are influencing and shaping the worlds religious thought, must be a discouraging reflection to those exponents of ancient systems at whose exegesis all modern criticism stands aghast and whose philosophies long since became matter of an- cient history. Although we have thus expressed our dissent from many of Dr. Shedds opinions, we are yet gratified at the appearance of this treatise which presents in its most extreme form a type of theology which is rapidly passing away. In no other way than by the presentation of it in full by one of its foremost advocates~ could it be made so plainly to appear how unbiblical and un- tenable it is. If an opponent of this system should characterize the old orthodoxy in many of the terms and definitions which Dr. Shedd employs, we venture to assert that half the world would declare that the representation was a caricature. It is as certain as that the world moves that this theology has had its day. Different conceptions of Gods character and govern- ment, together with a grammatico-historical interpretation of the Scriptures, are rapidly overturning its foundations. It can no longer win the assent of most thoughtful minds which, though not averse to religious truth, can only be satisfied with a con- ception of God and his revelation which meets the wants of the reason and the heart, and which does not offend the highest instincts of the soul. We think it should be frankly stated that it is such theology as this which not only renders plausible the attacks of the infidel upon Christian doctrine, but repels many earnest minds and drives them into utter skepticism and unbelief. There are cases, not a few, where bright-minded men in our theological institutions have been driven to an attitude, where, if they must suppose that this theology is a correct presentation of Christian 1889.] S~4edd8 Dogmatic Theology. 95 doctrine, they have no option but to abandon the idea of the Christian ministry. The inquiring student finds the mechan- ical, verbal inspiration theories perpetually disproved by his investigations. What is he to do? If there is no more tenable view of the Bible and its inspiration than this, his faith is in imminent peril. In his reflection he is striving after a concep- tion of the divine character which shall lend help and hopeful- ness to life and clothe the action of God in history with dignity and beauty and he is told that God is a being that must be just but may be benevolent or not, and that he has unconditionally selected some for salvation and has consigned the rest of man- kind to eternal damnation in advance, because they, when a part of undistributed human nature in Adam, committed his first sin. What are we to expect if young men are made to believe that this is essential Christian truth and necessary to be believed and preached? We are to expect skepticism and an increasing aversion to the Christian ministry, if not indeed to all Christian belief, and shall experience it. But happily the thinking of this age will not be brought to this dilemma. This type of theology should, however, understand its responsibility. There are scores of thoughtful men in our Seminaries and in the ministry whose Christian faith was saved only by unload- ing from their minds these burdens of mediawal speculation which are too grievous to be borne, and attaining more rational and tolerable thoughts of God, man, and their relations. It may be further observed that Dr. Shedds type of theology is purely rationalistic. It claims, indeed, to be a Biblical The- ology in systematic form, but we appeal to any candid student of it to say whether this claim is sustained. Its leading posi- tions are throughout matter of a priori definition, and texts of Scripture are then adduced, often by strained and untenable exegesis, to support the positions defined. We do not mean to imply that there is any objection to a priori theology as such. But let it avow its true character and not claim to be simply a Biblical Theology. A speculative system may be true, but it is to be judged and tested by philosophical criteria and has no right to claim for itself the protection of direct Biblical author- ity. Many of Dr. Shedds theories, such as that of inspiration and his philosophy of our identity with Adam, are not derived 96 Shedd8 Dogmatic Theology. [Feb., from the Bible but superimposed upon it. The former must stand the tests of history and criticism and the latter those of philosophy and ethics in the open courts of judgment which take cognizance of such questions. We should have been glad to speak with as much emphasis in commendation of some features of Dr. Shedds treatise, as we have put upon what seem to us to be some of its difficulties and defects. There will be plenty of persons, however, who will perform this more pleasant and gratifying task. It has seemed to us to be worth while to speak with frankness upon the difficulties of this system of theology as they appear to one whose indoctrination in it was happily discontinued in time to save his faith in the Holy Scriptures and in evangelical Christianity. If I have written with considerable spirit and warmth, it is because I have reason to feel the importance of a theology which shall be at once Biblical and rational, a theol- ogy which can be preached, and which can be acceptedas we think Dr. Shedds cannotby the mass of earnest, thinking men of our age. Though differing radically from Dr. Shedd as to the teaching and methods which shall be able to accom- plish the result, we are entirely at one with him in the desire and effort to promote reverent acceptance of the Scriptures and of every essential truth of evangelical religion, by the thought and life of our generation. Widely as we are compelled to differ from him and insuperable as we deem the objections to his system of thought, we desire to bear testimony to the clear- ness, fulness, and vigor with which Dr. Shedd has presented his opinions. GEORGE B. STEVENS. 1889.] iik8conception of Japanese Character. 97 ARTICLE 11.MR. PERCIVAL LOWELLS MISCONCEP TION OF THE CHARACTER OF THE JAPANESE. like Soul of the f7ar East. By PERCIVAL LOWELL, member of the Asiatic Society of Japan; author of A Korean Coup dEtat. THIS iS the title of the latest book on Japan and the Japanese. Its author is Mr. Percival Lowell. He does not, however, confine himself to Japan alone, but deals with the three na- tions of the extreme EastChina, Corea, and Japan. But as he treats more particularly of the people of Japan, and as the book is full of exaggerated statements and fanciful inferences therefrom, I will venture to say a few words about the book to correct some of its errors, not simply in the interest of those of us who are natives of that country, but also for the benefit of many who are desirous to obtain a correct knowledge of the Mikados Empire, and are solicitous for its welfare. Nothing is so pleasing to the Japanese who are studying in this land of freedom and progress, in order to learn and carry back with us to our native island whatever is good and noble here in this great nation, as to observe the great interest manifested by the people here in the progress of our home lands. Japan owes a great debt to the United States for intro- ducing her to the society of the Western nations, and feels grateful for what this great Republic has done towards her advancement in civilization. May the time soon come when Japan will stand among the community of civilized nations, as their equal; and possess the full political powers which are due to her as a sovereign State, but which are now unjustly taken away from her by the Christian nations of the world. The present writer has no personal acquaintance with the author of the book which lies before him for comment. He cannot, however, help feeling that the authors knowledge of the Japanese is exceedingly superficial, and that he does not adequately understand and appreciate the spirit of the people. The book everywhere discloses his inadequate knowledge con-

1889.] iik8conception of Japanese Character. 97 ARTICLE 11.MR. PERCIVAL LOWELLS MISCONCEP TION OF THE CHARACTER OF THE JAPANESE. like Soul of the f7ar East. By PERCIVAL LOWELL, member of the Asiatic Society of Japan; author of A Korean Coup dEtat. THIS iS the title of the latest book on Japan and the Japanese. Its author is Mr. Percival Lowell. He does not, however, confine himself to Japan alone, but deals with the three na- tions of the extreme EastChina, Corea, and Japan. But as he treats more particularly of the people of Japan, and as the book is full of exaggerated statements and fanciful inferences therefrom, I will venture to say a few words about the book to correct some of its errors, not simply in the interest of those of us who are natives of that country, but also for the benefit of many who are desirous to obtain a correct knowledge of the Mikados Empire, and are solicitous for its welfare. Nothing is so pleasing to the Japanese who are studying in this land of freedom and progress, in order to learn and carry back with us to our native island whatever is good and noble here in this great nation, as to observe the great interest manifested by the people here in the progress of our home lands. Japan owes a great debt to the United States for intro- ducing her to the society of the Western nations, and feels grateful for what this great Republic has done towards her advancement in civilization. May the time soon come when Japan will stand among the community of civilized nations, as their equal; and possess the full political powers which are due to her as a sovereign State, but which are now unjustly taken away from her by the Christian nations of the world. The present writer has no personal acquaintance with the author of the book which lies before him for comment. He cannot, however, help feeling that the authors knowledge of the Japanese is exceedingly superficial, and that he does not adequately understand and appreciate the spirit of the people. The book everywhere discloses his inadequate knowledge con- 98 M~. Percival Lowelle [Feb., cerning the real animating ethical power which has made Japan what she is to-day. It is hardly necessary to say that no one can discuss the characteristic traits of any nationality without fully entering into the spirit of that people. In Mr. Lowells case, it is doubtful whether he has attained this essen- tial requisite for writing a book which pretends to be a psycho- logical analysis of the people of the Far East. The authors attempt in writing this book is a hard but very interesting one. He undertakes to reveal to the readers what he regards to be the Soul of the Far East. What then is the Soul of the Far East? According to him, the Soul of the Far East may be said to be Impereonality. (p. 15). That is to say, the Far Orientals have no idea of personality; they have not yet attained to the full consciousness of individuality. In short, they are still in that childish state of development, be- fore self-consciousness has spoiled the sweet simplicity of nature. An impersonal race seems never to have fully grown up. (p. 25). This naThe state of existence, Mr. Lowell be- lieves is clearly shown in the family life, the language, the art, and the religion of the Orientals; and he proceeds to prove the validity of his thesis by citing the social customs and the relig- ious ideas of the people. It is not the object of this brief comment to scrutinize every example cited in the book, for there is neither space nor time to do so. Nor do I care to deny absolutely the statement that the idea of personality is somewhat less prominent in the Jap- anese character, than in the American. No candid mind can deny it, but this concession is something very different from Mr. Lowells conclusion. It is beyond doubt, that his interpre- tation of those facts which he mentions is fanciful and unreal in the extreme. His inference, in many cases, is totally groundless, and entirely unjustifiable. He reads his own ideas into those facts, and draws out undreamed of inferences from them. Leaving then, all the details aside, I will simply men- tion a few points in which the book is defective. The first point which I would like to note is that Mr. Lowell does not sufficiently recognize the class distinction which is a characteristic feature of the Far East, carrying with it a great difference in the manners and customs among the several 1889.] 211i8comc~ptwn of fapctne8e Character. 99 classes. What is a custom among the people of one class is not so among the people of another. This difference is more or less observable even in this country where all people are so much alike; but among the Japanese this class difference is much more marked, and ought to be fully recognized by one who writes of their habits and customs. Mr. Lowell cites whatever habit or custom confirms his thesis, withoat any notice in regard to the class difference. If a custom of the Samurai class is against his view, he entirely overlooks that, and going down to the class of Coolies, he finds his illustration there. I refer as an example of this arbitrary way of treatment to Mr. Lowells statement in regard to non-observance of birth- days among the Japanese. What he says may be true of the lower classes, but is not so of the higher classes. Does he not know that one of the great national holidays of Japan is the Mikados birthday? Mr. Lowell also misunderstands the Ja- panese way of reckoning ones age, when he says: From the moment he (the poor little Japanese baby) makes his appear- ance he is spoken of as a year old, and this same age he con- tinues to be considered in most simple ease of calculation, till the beginning of the next calendar year (p. 29). This is incorrect. It is not held that the baby ten days old is two years old after the first New Years day, but that he is in his second year (Ni- sai). The error is evidently due to the authors ignorance of the meaning of the Japanese word (sai). When a Japanese wants to state how old the baby really is, he uses another phrase,e. g. a Main ni-nen (two complete years). This may seem unimportant, but what are we to think of a writer who so blunders in the language which he pretends to understand? Inversely, what the author says of marriage is true for the higher classes, but not for the lower classes (p. 32). Among the lower classes it is not contracted by means of a middle man, it is almost as personal an affair as it is in this country. Speaking of the religious belief of the people, Mr. Lowell seems to have made himself acquainted simply with what the lowest class of the people believe and generalizes it to be the universal belief of the people. Hence his treatment of religion is exceedingly inexact and unsatisfactory. It is sur- prisingly superficial. He does not seem at all to comprehend 100 ]ifr. Percival Lowell8 [Feb., what is going on in Japan to-day, when he says They accept our material civilization, bnt reject onr creeds. This is tine if he means by creeds various systems of theology, but is absolutely incorrect if he means they reject the Christian religion. Another thing to be said is that the learned anthor does not state the difference between the Chinese and the Japanese. It is hardly necessary to discuss this point here, as the difference is familiar to him who knows anything of these two peoples. The one is extremely conservative, while the other is progres- sive. The one is slow and the other impulsive. The one is grave and sober, but the other quick-witted and lively, etc. While no one will deny that they have many points of similarity, it is a view fruitful of error to regard them as identical in their temperament and character. They manifest a great divergence in their national traits. Now Mr. Lowell, overlooking entirely the marked differences among the Orientals, takes illustrations to prove the thesis of his book just as it suits him best. When he cannot find what he wants among the Japanese, then, without saying anything, he goes directly to the Celestial Empire and gets his illustra- tions there! As a proof of this remark, I refer to the authors statement in regard to the ancestor-worship of the Chinese. No intelligent Japanese really worships his ancestors; he simply visits and bows before their monuments, as a token of his pro- found respect for them. Ancestor-worship is a Chinese custom. In the treatment of the oriental languages, Mr. Lowell con- fines himself to Japanese; but when he undertakes to describe the oriental family life, he selects the Chinese family as it suits him best, and not the Japanese family. Such an arbitrary way of treatment is not uncommon throughout the book. In many places, even when Mr. Lowells statements are cor- rect, his inferences from those facts are hardly justifiable. For example, he infers from the fact that there are many words in Japanese which are of Chinese origin, that the Japanese people are imitative, and he thinks this to be one of the proofs of the impersonality of the Japanese. The importation of many Chinese words into Japanese was a necessary result of the higher civilization brought into Japan many centuries ago from China. 1889.] Misconception of Jqpanese Character. 101 Their presence is exactly parallel to that of Latin and Greek words in the English langnage. More than this is tine. There is nothing which the Japanese have taken from China withont improving it greatly. For example, the Confucian philosophy was greatly modified and improved in Japan. Bnddhism also went throngh a similar change in Japan after it came from Corea. In one place Mr. Lowell speaks of the politeness of the people as an indication of their impersonality (p. 89). To my mind it carries jnst the opposite signification; as politeness is simply the esteem of the personality of another above ones own. 1 hope the people of the Far-East will never get snch an idea of personality as Mr. Lowell seems to imply in this con- ception of it. The old Japanese way of politeness is certainly far more desirable for the peace and order of a community than that. There are many other statements in the book which call ont onr challenge, bnt I have already said enongh of its snper- ficial observation, and the wrong inferences which it makes from insnfficient data. However, there is one thing which I mnst not omit in this connection, as it is the defect of the entire book. The anthor has no adequate appreciation of the most prominent trait of the Japanese people. This trait is nothing else than the profonnd sense of honor which animates the entire people of Japan. Withont a hearty sympathy with and a thorongh appreciation of this characteristic of the people, no one can satisfactorily write anything of the Japanese. Even many habits and customs, which seem absnrd to strangers at the first sight, when the national trait is well nuderstood, become not only exceedingly interesting to those who have a deep ethical sense, bnt almost fascinating. It is this profonnd sense of honor to ones self, and to ones family, and to ones country, that has made Japan what she is to-day. This chivalrons spirit has always been maintained, and is still maintained by all with zealons care. The chief ob- ject of education has always been to intensify and develop this sense of honor, and every action is tested and judged by it. Therefore the first question that presents itself to every true Japanese in deciding whether he ought to follow a certain 102 iJh8conce~ptwn of Japane8e Character. [Feb., course of action is: Is this worthy of me and the family to which I belong? Is it honorable for me to do that? Does it bring honor to my parents and relatives? Now such is the most powerful force in the Japanese social life, and no one, who lacks a full sympathy with this, can fully understand the real secret of the Japanese people, or is in a position to criticize them. Hence it is the great defect of Mr. Lowells book, that he nowhere recognizes this most essen- tial factor of the Japanese social life. It should be observed also, that this is pre~minently the characteristic trait of the Japanese, as distinguished from what is true of the whole of the rest of the Far-East. Whosoever pretends to deal with the psychology of the Japanese ought not to overlook this fact even for a moment. And I am sure that this feeling of a sense of honor is not an entirely imper8onal matter! In conclusion, I would like to know how Mr. Lowell can adjust his thesis to the cardinal principles of the Confucian ethics? Does not the conception of duty, so clearly taught by the great sage of the Far-East, imply some idea of person- ality? For there is no conception of duty without some con- ception of personality, a person to whom a thing is due, and also a person from whom it is due. What does, e. g. obedience a characteristic virtue of the Far-Orientalssignify, if man has no clear conception and conviction of the personality of one by whom obedience is commanded, and also of him from whom it is demanded? How can the Confucian eilver rule What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others, be interpreted without a clear conception of person- ality? I would therefore recommend Mr. Lowell to lay aside his philosophy of Evolution for a while, and to undertake anew a more impartial and thorough examination of the oriental life, and more especially a careful study of the oriental philosophy and ethics. If he does, I am sure he will quickly come to the conclusion, that the Extreme Orient is not quite so impersonal as he thinks. RIKIzO NAKA5HIMA. 1889.1 An omitted (Jkapter of Ro1~ert El8rnere. 103 ARTICLE 111.AN OMITTED CHAPTER OF ROBERT ELSMERE. IT may be inferred that Mrs. Ward thought it best not to give this fragment to the public. What may be the reasons for its late appearance should properly be left as a question to whet the instinct of conjecture. Nor can I consent to gratify the morbid curiosity of people who go off wondering how this chapter came to light in a publishers office. Some may see fit to comment upon the propriety of committing to the critical public that which seems to have been designedly omitted in the authorized text; but if any such there be, let them reflect, that if the author of Robert Elsmere is not excessively grate- ful for this supplement to a plain hiatus in her novel it must obviously be for the reason that the hiatus itself is preferable in her mind to the natural sequences of her logic as they herein appear. Having been made certain from an examination of various internal evidences that some such chapter must be in existence I have naturally been pleased to verify the sus- picion by actually finding the manuscript. I submit the ques- tion to a fair-minded public if my failure to reveal how and where this was done should in the least prejudice the cordiality of its reception. This, I fancy, wili not occur with those keen scented critics who like myself have noticed the omission. However that may befall, I herewith submit the document. WHITTEKER WmMsEy. CHAPTER XXV. (Original draft.) And he did face it through. The next three months were the bitterest in Elsmeres ex- perience. They were marked by anguished mental struggle, by a consciousness of painful separation from the soul nearest to his own, and by a constantly increasing sense of oppression, of closing avenues and narrowing alternatives, which for weeks together seemed to hold his mind in a grip whence there was no escape.

1889.1 An omitted (Jkapter of Ro1~ert El8rnere. 103 ARTICLE 111.AN OMITTED CHAPTER OF ROBERT ELSMERE. IT may be inferred that Mrs. Ward thought it best not to give this fragment to the public. What may be the reasons for its late appearance should properly be left as a question to whet the instinct of conjecture. Nor can I consent to gratify the morbid curiosity of people who go off wondering how this chapter came to light in a publishers office. Some may see fit to comment upon the propriety of committing to the critical public that which seems to have been designedly omitted in the authorized text; but if any such there be, let them reflect, that if the author of Robert Elsmere is not excessively grate- ful for this supplement to a plain hiatus in her novel it must obviously be for the reason that the hiatus itself is preferable in her mind to the natural sequences of her logic as they herein appear. Having been made certain from an examination of various internal evidences that some such chapter must be in existence I have naturally been pleased to verify the sus- picion by actually finding the manuscript. I submit the ques- tion to a fair-minded public if my failure to reveal how and where this was done should in the least prejudice the cordiality of its reception. This, I fancy, wili not occur with those keen scented critics who like myself have noticed the omission. However that may befall, I herewith submit the document. WHITTEKER WmMsEy. CHAPTER XXV. (Original draft.) And he did face it through. The next three months were the bitterest in Elsmeres ex- perience. They were marked by anguished mental struggle, by a consciousness of painful separation from the soul nearest to his own, and by a constantly increasing sense of oppression, of closing avenues and narrowing alternatives, which for weeks together seemed to hold his mind in a grip whence there was no escape. 104 An omitted Chapter of Robert Elemere. Feb., That struggle was not hurried and imbittered by the bodily presence of the squire. Mr. Wendover went off to Italy a few days after the conversation we have described. In the interim Elsmere had one of those reactionary experiences which seemed likely for the time to upset the influences to which he had been yielding. The squire being absent, there remained to Elsmere some possibilities of intellectual independence, of which he had not been as yet totally bereft by the acrid strength of this in- carnate intellect which inhabited the great library at the Hall. Elsmere had been scarcely aware himself, how far the process of subjugation had proceeded. Conscientious as he had ever been with his own mind, it is scarcely to be doubted that he believed himself to be following the purely independent con- victions wrought by his historical studies. The squire, indeed, had furnished the clue, and the great library had opened up the material of the research, but Elsmere would have resented as a slur upon his mental rectitude the imputation of any de- cisive tyranny of the squires stronger personality over his own. He reverenced the marvelious scholarship, but supposed him- self merely to be using it as an aid to his own intellectual emancipation. During these three miserable months it cannot be saidpoor Elsmerethat he attempted any systematic study of Christian evidence. His mind was too much torn for the most part with the sharp edge of the squires intellectual contempt for Christian polemics. It thus happened that he would have made no more decisive struggles against the liberalizing in- fluences, if the fates had not thrust the occasion upon him quite against his mood. The squires half ghoulish certainty that he had been for some time undermined, and was only waiting to find it out, seemed to have considerable warrant. Nowthe squire would have saidhe was finding it out. But Elsmere was not destined after all to go quite over to new positions without facing the whole question. Thus far the process had been the comparatively simple one of over- bearing his traditional training. Elsmere had a large confidence in his historical instinct, and testimony settled with him, as he supposed, a large range of questions. Against testimony, naturally enough, Catharines intuitions and ingrained tradi 1889.] An omitted Chapter of Ro6ert El8mere. 105 tions, however much they enhanced his moral struggle, could not much affect his logic. His Oxford training had introduced him into the scientific method, and when its application seemed to bring a clear product, his faith in the product was a kind of geometric multiple of his confidence in the process. Certainly Catharines faith was non-reasonable. She herself had never put it to a single historic test. Had she been able to do so, she would have declined. Elsmere believed that to be a legitimate position for her, but certainly not for himself. He respected even an unreasonable faith, but he believed himself as absolutely incompetent to retain such a religion as Catharine to relinquish it. The only other living antagonist of Elsmeres new specu- lations was Newcomeif he could be said to count. In such circumstances Elsmere might have shifted his foundations without much minute examination of the old ones, if he had been left to himself. Had this occurred, doubtless he would scarcely have suspected the squires assumption and Laugham s languid affirmation concerning the value of testimony: The whole of orthodox Christianity is in it. But probably it was better that Elsmere should go with his eyes open, and it must be confessed that he had not yet seen the full import of his idolized method. His reconstruction of the past had been mostly under the guidance of the squire, before whose pitiless learning he had seen the myth-making centuries dis- sected and put together again so dispassionately that he sup- posed he actually had finished that question. These are fairy tales because we know just how they are made, the squire had seemed to say. Actually he never did say it. He only made Elsmere say it. If the young disciple said it at the end of the squires reasoning rather than of his own, Elsmere be- lieved that the reasoning and the material for it was final research. In the face of its outcome he stood, slowly swaying to the bitter certainty that Murewell was at an end. Here was the inexorable truth, and to the truth he must sacrifice himself. And Catharine? The tenants? Was history then that pitiless evictor? Yes, history and his conscience! Miracles do not happen. Testimony has said it. VOL. xiv. 8 106 An omitted Ckctpter of Rolert El8mere. [Feb., He was thus at the end of rending conflicts so far as the mind was concerned. Much of the actual struggle he was able to keep from Catharine s view, as he had vowed to him- self to keep it. For, after the squires departure, Mrs. Darcy too went joyously up to London to flutter awhile through the golden alleys of Mayfair, and Elsmere was left once more in undisturbed possession of the Murewell library. There, for awhile, every dayoh, pitiful reliefhe could hide himself from the eyes he loved. He was startled in the midst of this crumbling of his tradi- tions by a flying visit from Langham. He would almost have preferred to see anybody else, or rather to see Langham at any other time. His friend had been seized with a sudden desire to see Murewell againhe knew Rose was not thereand curiously enough had started at once for the train. He was surprised at his own decision, but as the train started before he had been an instant in the coach, he was saved the neces- sity of balancing and debating the issue. And as I am, as usual doing nothing with considerable assiduity, youll allow me to impart my chill to you Elsmere. Its good for these overheated people to get a cool breath occasionally. Elsmere who had met Langham in the lane civilly led the way to the rectory. Langham was more voluble than usual and talked all the way. Elsmere watched Catharine as they met. He saw by the sudden compression of her lips that she was displeased. Did she suspect that it was his doing? That was probably the case. He had sent for Langham,to help him in a great mental and spiritual emergency,Elsmere read this much in her manner and hastened to enlighten her at the first opportunity. Catharine was partially relieved,only par- tially. Laugham was here all the same,he did not say for how long. He was grayer and paler than when they had last seen him. But on the whole he seemed more lively and actually took some apparent interest in the general conversa- tion. Elsinere laid it to London, and smilingly declared that Laugham would yet become a man of action if he continued to haunt the metropolis. 1889.] An omitted Chapter of Robert El8mere. 107 In the afternoon at Langhams request the two men went to the library. Elsinere had no intention of taking Laugham into his confidence, but his remembrance of his friends tenacious and comprehensive scholarship made him feel a desire to sound Laugham abstractly on some of the main questions. He remem- bered that it was Laugham who had suggested this problem of testimony. I have been diving into the matter some, said the rector, carelessly, as far as he could control his feelings. There is a deal more to it than one could have prophesied. But such reconstruction of dead centuries is extremely fascin- ating. Laughain was poring over the title page of a Syriac manu- script and paused long enough to ask: How do you progress with the Gallic origins? Is it building? Nothing in it yet. Only a boiling mass of stuff. A life- time I fancy will be short enough for that. Both men were silent a little. Elsmere supposed that his question had not struck fire but in a few minutes Langham put down his manuscript and said coolly: Theres no accounting for predilections. I, now, for instance, could hardly believe it credible that a sane man should attempt to settle a religious question by testimony. I have revised that opinion I gave you. Or rather I have finished it. It is easier to rule out testimony than to hunt it to its hole. As a matter of fact it has too many holes. It never does get hunted to death. It is better to have an unassailable a priori negative. Elsmere was astounded. Why, you discredit the method of rational science utterly, he replied~ You would have us go back to the scholastic metaphysics. Be obliged to, I fancyor at least to a substratum of com- mon sense. What amount of scientific testimony, for instance, would suffice to convince the owner of this library that Jesus of Nazareth was raised from the dead! Langham drawled, and was really as calm as ever. He seemed unconscious that he had pricked a bubble. Do you mean, said Elsmere, hotly, that a man of his keenness would yield first to a priori antipathies? 108 An omitted Chapter of Ji?olert Elemere. [Feb., Langham looked at him languidly and said without the least trace of passion: Oh, for that matter, you adorers of the scientific method mustnt imagine yourselves to be freed from fundamental nega- tives. I, now, could quite easily believe that miracle has occurred if I did not know a priori that miracles cannot occur. About the squireI hope he has not made you believe that he is indifferent about the main issue. The main issue ! Yes. Is there any testimony that miraclessay any mira- clenever did occur, . . . That would be waiting to prove a negative you say? But that is the very point of this testi- mony. It isnt a question on which side is common sense but on which side is testimony. It strikes me that if it is a question of the value of testimony we must say that all testimony has some value. Sticking to that mode, we must offset testimony with witnesses. As regards miracles, the case is made out. If testimony can prove anything, they occurred. Probably the squire thinks so. He simply does at the end what I do at the beginninghe invalidates the testimony with a well settled capacity of disbelief. And crucifies the only method of exact ratiocination we know, interjected Elsmere, flaming. Why, on such a method the axioms of Euclid would be at the mercy of every fanatic who was incapable of believing That two and two make four? Yes, if anybody could real- ize the impossibility of an axiom it would have to go, I fancy. We call it an axiom because nobody can doubt it. We reject testimony about miracles because they contravene the axioms. Laugham looked a trifle interested. He had unconsciously absorbed some of Elsmeres fever. He said no more, however, and both men fell again to looking over the bindings. When he had gone and Elsmere was once more alone his mental struggle began to take a new form. Langhams words had opened a new mine under his feet. Was his very method of ratiocination in danger then? After all there might be nar- rower limits to induction than he had sapposed. What in very fact had set him upon this inquiry after testimony? Was it at bottom a historic instinct, or was it the dogmatic skepti 1889.] An omitted Chapter of Robert El8mere. 109 cism of the squire? And here lay the whole question of the value of his results. After he had inspected the modes of myth-making had he found anything but a more acceptable account of the way in which they may have grown? If he could have singled out some of the alleged supernatural occur- rences and could have been able to retain them as true, dis- criminating between the real and the false in the histories, that would instantly have proved to his consciousness that he had proceeded strictly in view of the testimony. But possibly Langham is right, he said, with a groan. It has not been after all so much an examination of the value of these records, as it has been the construction of an a priori generalization that might justify the rejection of the entire mass. And I have called that science. Elsmere, let it be confessed, repeated his inward groaning of humiliation more than once in the days that followed. This ghost was really the hardest to lay of them all. To have doubt arise in his inmost intuitions of the value of the very method by which he had permitted his faith to be upset, was bitter and humiliating. I see very clearly, he wrote to Laugham a few days later, that there is practically no end to this historic mode. If I cannot leap over any details I must perforce give the ground over to each separate miracle until I can show its falsity. As it is a question solely whether miracles do happen or have happened, no miracle can be ruled out except on the merits of the case. Even induction must not assume the thing to be proved. Unless there is assumption somewhere a miracle can always creep in. And on reading the sentence over Elsmere saw that it was identical with Langhams assertion that as a matter of fact testi- mony has too mamiy holes. It only remained at last for the tormented soul to confess that the squires philosophy had con- quered in quite a different fashion from anything he had looked for. Well, then, let it be so, he cried with bitterness of spirit. Langham is right. Miracles violate experience. They do not occur because they cannot. Let my history stand as the filling in of that proposition. 110 An omitted Chapter of Robert Elemere. [Feb., Having come to this point Elsmere felt some relief. He had not discarded his history, he had simply placed it in a new relation. To be sure he might not discredit the testimony of the second centnry at this remote day by a purely indnctive process, bnt he had gone far enongh to showso he believed that the antecedent incredibility of miracle is not overcome by testimony given in an age when a predisposition towards super- natnralism was so widely prevalent. He was in the squires library when this reflection was finally concluded. He had found a monograph on the Alexandrian collection and was absently stndying the title page. He noticed curiously that it was partly a speculation and partly a study npon the prob- able contents of that vast aggregation of books destroyed by the immortal wantonness of Julius Ca~sar. The entire inductive philosophy was probably devoured in these flames. It is almost certain that Alexandria had anticipated not only Des Cartes and Bacon, but the practical application of the modern sci- entific method to historical criticism and to natural philosophy. Elsmere stared at the book as if it had smitten him in the face. And this was the age of which he had been saying that its testimony was childish. Could this possibly be true. He looked at the name of the author on the title page of the little book. No mean authority, he admitted with some alacrity. And if he knows his ground, then what of Jerusalem and Antioch? The very habit of collecting such great libraries especially of writing them off by hand,did it not tend to accuracy? But pshaw! It is too late! What avails testi- mony to the impossible. Nature is under law. God fixed that law, and it is blasphemy to say that He breaks with Him- self. Indeed, it now seemed to Elsmere that he had passed a point to which he would notcould not return. Henceforth it was to be Laughams position on that subject and not the squires. He even came to believe that the squire himself had over- thrown the testimony in obedience to a mental necessity. It is futile to struggle against the certainty of things. It is doubtful if one would receive the witness of that remote day even to something rationally conceivable. To propose it as a 1889.] An omitted C/atpter of 1?olert Elemem. 111 basis for believing in miracleswell, we are all Langhams trulywe burrow under the bottom and say outright what cannot be isnt, testimony or no testimony.~~~ Elsmere had learned to put things simply by preaching to his tenants, and this probably was the plain statement of his issue. To arrive thus abruptly and at such a point did not seem to Elsmere unnatural when he thought it over by himself. He sincerely believed that he had set to himself the task of finding the exact truth, and he saw how very near the reason- ing of Mr. Wendover lay in its psychological aspect, to the skepticism of Langham. And after all the result in practice would be precisely the same. To abandon old ground from the prior mental necessity, after all was not far different, from the same abandonment, at the end of however much historical conviction. Indeed, he saw that whatever difference there was lay in the added imperiousness of the intuition. He must re- nounce his ecclesiastical connections, at the command of a new certainty. He did not as yet see how much more his conclu- sion involved. In this state of mind the providences which seemed to be struggling with poor Elsmercs life threw upon him a new acquaintance. A certain Mr. Oxenbode, whom he had known casually at Oxford, by some inevitable circulation of Elsmere s growing reputation, had been set upon an inquiry as to the details of his success, by some necessities of a paper which he was preparing for a daily journal. In order to study up the ase with requisite thoroughness Mr. Oxenbode decided to visite Murewell. Elsmere faintly remembered him at first, until it occurred to him that Oxenbode had written a book, of which the reviews had spoken highly. It was the dreg of bitterness to Elsmere to reflect that this inquiry into his work should be begun at such a time. Mr. Oxenbode was a curious insinuating creature, and Elsmere liked him. He saw that his visitor possessed a keen sense of mental proportions, and saw readily the strong points of his case. But he was so haunted by the feeling of his own insincerity in permitting Mr. Oxenbode to go on with his investigation under the circumstances that he at last re- solved to give him the necessary hint of the possibilities. He 112 An omitted Chapter of Robert Elernere. [Feb., was happily assisted by the circumstancesthat is, by Mr. Oxenbode himself, who was a free talker almost to the point of volubility. They were remarking on the modifying effect of religion upon the administration of criminal law,how the conversa- tion reached that point Elsmere did not afterward remember. Mr. Oxenbode suggested that witchcraft persecutions, and superstitions of that kind, would hardly bear the light of our modernized thought. And Christianity itself, said Elsmere, will eventually stand upon its pure value as a religion. It will make a way for itself as a great spiritual fact, on its own merits as such. And the sooner the better. Mr. Oxenbode evidently did not suspect the existence of that which lay seething under all this. They stood on the little bridge, and the brook babbled along under their eyes, idly in the sunshine. Not only that, said Mr. Oxenbode, a little absently, but this great spiritual fact will sufficiently avouch its own tradi- tions and carry them along. I am with you, Mr. Elsmere, in your sturdy maintenance of historic Christianity. Certainly here is a religion large enough to count for something in sup- port of a history which does not accord with the types of mod- ern experience. Elsmere inwardly winced and almost resolved to retreat. He saw that he now occupied a false position. No man more com- pletely than he had committed himself to the traditions. Plainly he must break off. To follow the life which implied the things he had formerly preached was impossible. Oxen- bodes compliment to his fidelity scored him sharply. But he kept his outward serenity and, after thinking a little, he yen- tured a cautious reply: Yet, Christianity requires us to sup- pose one order of experience for our age, and quite another for the past. What would, perhaps, be the result, if we could apply the Baconian method to the first century ? Oh, as for that, answered Mr. Oxenbode, we cant safely apply it anywhere, alone,that is, meaning the process of induction. You havent read my book ? 1889.] An omitted Chapter of Rolert Elsmere. 113 Elsmere expressed his regrets and added, that this pleasure was still in store. It treats just this question. I think, I see clearly that our skepticism of the Christian history mostly has grown out of this modern adoration of mathematics. Oh, mathematics, of course, in their placebut when you get a whole age of pure lexolatry, it rules out miraclesand God, too, if they only knew it. Elsmere smiled at his new friends vehemence, but said a little sadly: Well, the introduction of a little orderly method does play havoc with many of our cherished dreams. Norelig- iou is uo dream. iNo method can disturb that.__ I dont see itpardon me for interrupting. Religion isnt left unless it has an object. If it has an object there may be a history. If the object be God, then, of coursemiraclesre- demptionall. Perhaps, I gallop a little fastbut it is all ra- tional to me, Mr. Elsmereand to you, too, no doubt. Still I find that the clergy have not resisted this craze for classifying. Yes, sir, that is the bottom of it. It is a reliance on endless and illimitable definition. That is the origin of your so-called laws. At the end of it religion is reduced to a solemn fear of the silence, or an adoration of mere ghosts. My friend, Mr. Harrison, did not miss the mark so far when he used his wit on it, and called it the worship of x uth power. As a mat- ter of fact, Mr. Spencer has not shown that religion carries anything with itlike your work here in Murewell sayunless it becomes much more than the recognition of an unknow- able energy whence all things proceed. Oxenbode stopped abruptly with a little laugh. But all this is lost on you, of course, he said lightly. By no means. I am a skeptic myself in my way, said Elsmere seriously. And as to the critical methodwe must, to be sure, rely on it. I do not profess to abhor mathematics. Not abhorof course not, for adding and subtracting figures. But we see easily in our day that the little creatures who are undoing our miracles so off-hand and arrogantly, get their warrant from what we call induction. The particular in- duction they name Uniformity of Nature. The causal pro- position Argyle took as the title of his bookReign of Law. Now, law is a fixed order. Your theist says, To break a fixed 114 An omitted Chc~pt& r of Rolert Elsme~ee. [Feb., order is inconsistent. But God is consistenthence miracles are atheistic. Your agnostic says, This fixed order is in- frangible, by the nature of law, hence miracles are absurd. Your atheist says, This fixed order is the only sovereign, and there is no one to break it. And the logic stands unimpeach- able in every case. Elsmere had followed the snatches diligently. They were only his own conclusions put tersely and soniewhat boldly. But as you bold the miracles, I fancy, you have faced the logicand found the keyhole he said, now anxious to hear the best that Oxenbode could do. It was a strange feeling to him, to find himself supporting the other side. No, I cant face that logic, neither can you. It remains, and the mistake of the clergy will be seen sooner or later in attempting to shatter it. You cant give up the whole ra- tionale of your case iii the first premise and expect to save any essential remnants in your conclusion. I dont, for one. The skeptic must not take it for granted with me, that fatalism is a competent philosophy. You probably wish to discriminate between the reign of law and the doctrine of necessity. As to the point at issue you cant do it profitably. Oh, if you mean to attack the fact implied in that phrase reign of lawwell, you have a tolerably large contract. A hundred years of observation have settled that. Not quite, Mr. Elsmere. The larger half is left out. Show me how, said Elsmere. He was ready to drop the argument, because he saw, that he was at the end of common ground. A man who was about to deny the plain order of na- ture naturally could have no case. The larger half, said Mr. Oxenbode, is the absolute free- dom of Godand science has been stone-blind not to see it. But that is not a thing to be seen, is it ? said Elsmere. We may declare it, as a pure anthropomorphism, but is there any ordered proof of it ? Of that and nothing else. And this world is the testimony. Speaking of anthropomorphismwhere do you suppose we got our conception of law ? From nature, of course, promptly answered the rector. He was scarcely interested, but willing to hear the matter through. 1889.] An omitted Chapter of Robert Elemere. 115 Would you say that law in the first instance is from a law- giver, and so implies one? Yes! Well, then either that is be- cause a lawgiver is necessary to the very idea of law, or because we practiced anthropomorphismwe carried our own sense of authority over into the sources of natures regularities. Very possible. Theism might well be enforced that way, assented Elsmere. It is more than enforced, I should suppose. It is neces- sitated. Why is it not quite as legitimate, pray, to carry over our sense of freedomand especially if we see its marks in the universe ? Elsmere did not believe there were any such marks, but he struck out keenly at the conceptiona crazy one, though he thought it to be. And our capriceyou will tell us next thatthat there is no stability. No one would believe me if I didsimply because there is after all and in spite of fine philosophies a kind of universal re- liance upon what we term our anthropomorphic inferences. We always have trusted them, probably always shall. It is not true that man is mostly capricious. The history of the world would on that supposition be untraceable. Your so-called criti- cal method shows steady purpose, individually, ethnically.It is this mathematical sense in us that reduces the universe to an intelligible system, and infers consistency in the Creator. But, if we know anything, we know that we are consistent only on lines of free choiceand within an infinite range of varia- tion. What do you do with residues? What is the explana- tion of variation ? Oh, I suppose no one professes that we know everything. Classification has only begun. Has gone far enough to show absolutely that there must be a law for every fact, because there is an unclassified residue in every instance. What does this prove? This :That there is no actual reign of lawbut only two modes of action, one reg- ular and the other originalone after a type and one ever modifying the type. This is the principle of progress, the complement of growth. In man it is the mark of freedom. What is it, pray, in God ? 116 An omitted Chapter of ~Bobert Elemere. [Feb., Oxenbode stopped, his cheeks blazing. He was inspirited with his argument, and supposed that he had a sympathetic listener. But Elsmere had been all his life too completely saturated with inductive methods to be moved from his base by an assault so novel. To him the world was a perfect scheme of mathematics, which, if we only knew enough, might be laid out in order, and defined in terms. His former admission into it of historic miracles, he now regarded as an irrational concession to reli- gious feeling, which in his new enlightenment he saw or believed had not been necessary. Mr. Oxenbode, taking his silence for an invitation, rushed on with his argument. The truth is, that our word law, as used modernly is wrested. But let that go. I do not look upon the miracles of the Bible as something that can scarcely be saved. On the contrary, they are dispensations to be expected. If they did not occur, they ought to have occurredthat is, if there is free- dom behind them. Given a personal God, then there is a supernatural cause. We know it, because we know personal causation in consciousness. We break in on natures order per- petualiyif there is any order. The antecedent expectation will be to witness inbreakings and deviations, not because we love marvels, but because that is experience. Our experience is not mostly of law, but of the so-called breaking of law. Science hasnt seen that ? TYell, all the worse for science. I tell von, Mr. Elsmere, our blind adherence to a method has shut our eyes to what the Greeks saw, and the Jewsthe immanent freedom of God in his own world.But given this, and you have shifted the onus of credibility. Miracles then will occur when they are needed, and we shall believe them when the tes- timony and circumstances establish them. Perhaps, said Elsmere dryly, you could furnish a form- ula more entertainingmore comprehensive than Argyles. He feared that he had spoken contemptuously, but Oxenbode did not apparently so receive the remark. Precisely, he said warmly, I have done it already in my book. Instead of reign of law I propose a new clue to sci- ence to wit the reign of a Personal God. Some of us identify the two, said Elsmere. 1889.] An omitted Chapter of Rolert El8mere. 117 Yes. Logically, that sacrifices miracles and undeifies the God. As I saidit leaves out the important half. If laiw and freedom do not unite in ])er8onaldy and in Deity, then philo8ophy and theology are loth at an end. W. C. STILES. This closed the interview and neither of them ever recurred to the subject. As for Elsmere, he was too far engulfed in his beloved scientific method to get much light from Oxenbodes positions, and went home with his purposes unchanged. He did not even think it worth while to face these questions seri- ously, so utterly convinced had he become of the strength of his earlier positions. He walked home, counting up the engage- ments of the next two weeksthe school treattwo club field daysa sermon in the country townthe probable opening of the new Workmans Institute, and so on. Oh! to be through them all, and away, away, amid Alpine scents and silences. . NoTE.The manuscript at this point breaks off, evidently under the resolution to substitute for the chapter, as thus writ- ten, the one which appears in the received text. Attest WHITTEKER WHIM5EY, Transcriber. A True Copy. 118 how Color-Law affects our Home8. [Feb., ARTICLE IV.HOW COLOR-LAW AFFECTS OUR HOMES. THE following suggestions cannot fail to be found important because they are substantially dictated by the Law of Color. From its decision no appeal is possibleits ruling is final. There are two classes of color: warm and cold. Warm colors are the yellows, the reds, and the greens. Cold colors are the blues, white, and black. When mixed, these colors produce endless varieties of tone and shade, all of which, how- ever, continue subject to the Law of Color. Yellow, in which a slight tinge of blue has been mixed, becomes lemon color, and is plainly cold, because of its bluish tint; in fact, all shades of color are cold in which any trace of blue is apparent. Yellow mixed with pure red becomes orange or the warmest known color. Red mixed with blue makes purple, of which some varieties rival the blues as the coldest tones possible. It is thus evident, that our warmest colors can be cooled, or our cold tones be warmed at pleasure, with the single exception of blue, which, when mixed with yellow, becomes green, or with red, changes to purple. Color is made pleasing and grateful to the eye by two dis- tinct methods: by contrast of warm and cold, or by either of these groups in harmony. The strongest possible effect is pro- duced by the contrast of warm and cold tones. But the accurate use of color requires definite knowledge, together with an experience that never comes unsonght. This significant fact explains why eager enjoyment of color is comparatively rare. A temperament responsive to color influence, but, as yet, in- different to art knowledge, naturally prefers the tame softness of harmony effect, to the vigor, power, and spirit of legitimate contrast. Inexperience thus sheltered, and protected from absurd mistakes, moves entirely at ease within this safe en- closure. Free to pick and choose at will within these narrow limits, it is content with what it supposes to be color and a

118 how Color-Law affects our Home8. [Feb., ARTICLE IV.HOW COLOR-LAW AFFECTS OUR HOMES. THE following suggestions cannot fail to be found important because they are substantially dictated by the Law of Color. From its decision no appeal is possibleits ruling is final. There are two classes of color: warm and cold. Warm colors are the yellows, the reds, and the greens. Cold colors are the blues, white, and black. When mixed, these colors produce endless varieties of tone and shade, all of which, how- ever, continue subject to the Law of Color. Yellow, in which a slight tinge of blue has been mixed, becomes lemon color, and is plainly cold, because of its bluish tint; in fact, all shades of color are cold in which any trace of blue is apparent. Yellow mixed with pure red becomes orange or the warmest known color. Red mixed with blue makes purple, of which some varieties rival the blues as the coldest tones possible. It is thus evident, that our warmest colors can be cooled, or our cold tones be warmed at pleasure, with the single exception of blue, which, when mixed with yellow, becomes green, or with red, changes to purple. Color is made pleasing and grateful to the eye by two dis- tinct methods: by contrast of warm and cold, or by either of these groups in harmony. The strongest possible effect is pro- duced by the contrast of warm and cold tones. But the accurate use of color requires definite knowledge, together with an experience that never comes unsonght. This significant fact explains why eager enjoyment of color is comparatively rare. A temperament responsive to color influence, but, as yet, in- different to art knowledge, naturally prefers the tame softness of harmony effect, to the vigor, power, and spirit of legitimate contrast. Inexperience thus sheltered, and protected from absurd mistakes, moves entirely at ease within this safe en- closure. Free to pick and choose at will within these narrow limits, it is content with what it supposes to be color and a 1889.] flow Color-Law afect8 our Ilome8. 119 knowledge of it. Conscious that its tiny cup of tone-experience is filled to the brim, it drains the tasteless contents with relish and with satisfaction. Here is found the origin of tiresome and monotonous misuse of color under conditions loudly calling for its skillful employ- ment. And hence, as a familiar instance, we are annoyed by womans wraps and ribbons selected from tints insipidly simi- lar, or with the dull expanse of house outer-walls, cornices, doors, blinds, etc., all painted from the same pot. There is, however, consolation in the knowledge that this kind of mistake declares, and may be considered to prove, an inherent feeling for color, ill-advised, because, as yet, imma- ture. And there is reason to be thankful for the cheering fact, that the art-world finds no lack of bright students, who are less easily satisfied. Their more ardent characters already burn to explore the farthest limits of the widest range. They intend to learn all that may be taught; to experience every thrill that art-nature affords. Nor do they need to be informed, that even moderate color experience could never be gratified, or be satisfied, with abuse of one unhappy tone. Just as no one would undertake to regale a fastidious and accomplished palate with the contents of a single dish. Nor can the well-schooled eye be easily hmnbugged. Much of the inner-self of a writer may be read between, the lines of his book, so, every individual use of color exposes the art-con- dition of the user. A glance suffices. The faithful student may console himself with remembrance that color, once put in place, allows neither indecision nor self- opinioned obstinacy. Tints, adopted without approval of Color-Law, or applied contrary to its advice, proclaim the fact as far as eye can reach. Monochromic or combined, they ad- vertise both the omission and the ignorance. Now for some practical hints. Houses must be painted on the outside, and decorations settled upon for interiorsside-walls and ceilings must be tintedwall and floor rugs chosenwomans apparel must be made ready for all occasions. For obvious reasons, this last item ought to make a careful color student of every living creature of the gentle sex. Furthermore, woman must have 120 Row Color-Law affects our Homes. [Feb., not only approbation and permission, but direct aid from Color-Law, if she wishes to appear to the best advantage. Who does not recognize the fascinating room-charm belong- ing to the grateful atmosphere of some favored homesthe cordiality of welcome, plainly felt and positive if tongueless? Even the happy furnituregiven to hospitalitystands more than ready to greet the incomer. On entering, the very breath of the house comes to meet us at the threshold, with a friendly reception, that is not less unmistakably hearty because silent, and is scarcely less real, from being intangible. Here the lights burn brighter and look more cheerfulpictures seem painted for the places where they hangthe restful easy-chairs, as if anxious for the visitors convenience, offer themselves pointedlyluxurious comfort abounds. Guests are few who are not responsive in the presence of such enviable household treasuresthe value of whose attrac- tion is not to be reckoned in weight of gold. Can womankind imagine home environment more becoming than the one here enjoyed by the hostess? With congenial entourage, she breathes an atmosphere ever keenly desirable. She would be the last person to think or to say that matters such as these are trifles. And especially, the successful woman will never so speak, for she knows better. She has discovered the real importance of tasteful matters that minor experience may ignore. With knowledge of color, but positively not without it, these ideal surroundings are attainable. And yet the coin am praisement of such priceless possessions is but a fraction of the monster outlay that flounders offensively in another tasteless home. There, non-acquaintance with C olor-Law has failed to supply anything more enjoyable than multi-colored stiffness, and managed to furnish a costly, marrow-chilling drawing-room with nothing so conspicuous or so abundant as measureless starch. But when Color-Law enters the unfurnished room, it sug- gests that the widest choice is allowable as to what shall be done with the naked walls, ceillng, and floor. Any preferred tint or tone may be selected, light or dark, cheerful or severe, and the appointments may be rich and elegant or simple and inexpensive. These effects are all desirable. If, however, 1889.1 flow Color-Law affect8 our Home8. 121 there is placed in the room so much as a chair, which is in- tended to remain, it becomes a note of the color-chord for that room. Gay or sober, for whatever follows, the key is there and then decided. Color-Law again asks if the walls are to be colored warm or cold? It explains the importance of the tints decided upon, by showing that their tone not only determines the final effect, but governs the arrangement of every detail. We may suppose a case where the color of side-walls is to be warm. Therefore, a cold tinted ceiling is needed for enjoyable contrast. Whatever tint is chosen may go shading on through countless gradations of cold grays, up to almost pure white. This tint forms part of the complete color scheme, which includes wall, furniture, and footing, that, by itself, almost perfects the intention. And with background like this, distinct pictorial finish may be con- fidently looked for, because it follows naturally. It may also be honestly enjoyed. A side-wall, that is intended to be itself a decoration, may be ornamented at will. And it may be convenient to bear in mind the interesting fact, that, in the case of individual colors, reds have the perspective expression of advancing, as it is called; blues, greens, and grays, of receding; while yellows, wherever placed, may be relled upon to hold fast their own. Tints of pink or of blue, so dilute and delicate as to be barely perceptible, when looked at separately, become comparatively brilliant when exhibited side by side. Under the same cir- cumstances, stronger shades of these colors, entirely satisfactory when alone, act and react on each other with so much earnestness as to grow intense and even garish. This fact illustrates the painters axiom that color is what it is, where it is. Another wall, whose r6le is to afford brilliant rellef by its own obscuration, and to play the part of faithful companion to some object in especial favor, as a statue, a bronze, or any variety of art ornament, should wear a subordinate tone, fiat, and gray with the preferred tint. Grays appear to be largely misunderstood. They may consist of, and be tinted with, every color on the palette, and do not specially nor even generally refer to any variety of lead color. voL. xiv. 9 122 How Color-Law affect8 our Home8. When placed among tones both lighter and weaker, all bands of positive, bold color are to be particularly avoided. Besides being a deliberate defiance of Color-Law and of the values, as well as an offense to art, their presence ruins the integrity of every tone-combination where they intrude; their hardness iso- lates them from adjoining color as completely as if solid mould- ing filied the spaces they occupy; in studio talk, they tear anything they touch. When matters of refined importance, such as these, are en- trusted to the limited capacity of routine craftsmen, the dismal result, to be surely counted upon, seldom fails to appear. By their work, they are certainly known! Facts remain relentless in color-use as in morals. Sin is followed by retribution. The law-breaker must pay the penalty. Repetition of ceiling tints on side-walk is forbidden. One reason is loss of dignity. A large, unbroken surface of some pleasing tintnot whitelends an effect that is impressive and restful. This same surface, like a picture, appears to better advantage in a frame. Hence the ceiling-border, the cornice, and the frieze. It is not difficult to understand that a tone-contention of side-walis with ceiling must weaken, by diffusion, the individual power of color over-head. Reproduction of this special ceiling- tint on the wall space of any room is sure to impair its original stateliness and distinction. It is also desirable to remember that the result, as a whole, is more pleasing, and that the proportions of any room appear to better advantage, when the ceiling is lighter in tone than the adjoining wall, with the aim in view to reproduce, indoors, an indirect effect of sky in real landscape. Deep, strong colors suggest heaviness with solidity, and the converse is also true. For this reason, and because our ceilings can hardly rise too high, they may be made to appear to float above our heads, as far away as may be, by the use of colors that are light and atmospheric with blue and with gray. Skilfully chosen values in reds and yellows may itensify this eye-charm, without injury to the vaporous illusions. The primal importance of preserving the values in every combination of color is once more insisted on. By the technical 1889.] Row Color-Law aftect~ our llome8. 123 term values preserved, the painter means to assert that colors light or dark in tone must be harmonized or contrasted with colors correspondingly light or dark. And the values must continue to be preserved, on the scale ascending or de- cending, as far as the eye can distinguish varying shades. Sometimes it is desired to soften a given tone without dis- turbing its value or changing its note on the scale. In such case the effect is obtained by introducing the contrasting tone in quantity sufficient to neutralize to the point desired any color disposed to be obstinate or intrusive. As for instance, under certain circumstances, adjoining values call forwe may saysome plain blue, cold and low in tone. After this blue has been laid in precisely as wanted, it is found from tone- reaction to be too energetic; its proportions become excessive; its voice also is too loud and must be repressed. To temper it with white, would carry it up too high on the scale and destroy its value; to use black, would take it too low, with the same result at the other end of the scale. Experience, however, manages to obtain the desired effect by judicious introduction of the contrasting yeliow. It is well known that yellow can be added to blue until this cold tone takes on a greenish hue, and when the mixture is carried far enough, it becomes a positive, warm green. But in the example here made use of, such mixture is not wanted. Green is not the tone desired, but a subdued and softened blue. Therefore, instead of directly composing green by incorporation of yellow, the requisite amount of warmth and temper is sup- plied in spots or dots. These small magicians are introduced with prudencenicely calculated to lose themselves in the local tone while producing the needed effect. Great care is taken to keep them in such complete subjection, that, while doing their whole duty and speaking as desired, they may only say pre- cisely what is wanted. Those sufficiently interested in the subject are invited to compare, side by side, a clear blue scarf with another of the same tone, but freely dotted with yellow. It is thus made clear, how an over-prominent color may be restrained at will by the simultaneous exhibition of its con- trasting color. The importance of the fact can hardly be exag 124 low Color-Law affect8 our Homee. [Feb.~ gerated to the color student, or to any one anxious to be exact in use of color harmony and contrast. Not unseldom it happens to be desirable that separate objects, discordant in tone, should continue to remain near each other, and it may be, exactly where, at present, their indi- vidual colors persistently quarrel. In such case the interposi- tion of one of the light tints, usually called white, and the con- sequent power of tone reaction, will be sure to reconcile con- tentions and change ill-temper into at least tolerable friend- ship. The walls and ceiling being now provided for, next comes the floor covering. An ideal rug would have its main body plain in pattern and substantially or actually plain in color, of any preferred tint of gray that is light and warm; and around this single-toned center a border, rich and wide, will lap onto some cold tone (filler) extending quite to the warm side-wall. This massing of uniform color with no interruption of mechanical designcertainly, not of one resembling or re- calling the checkerboardis an important factor in pictorial decoration. The same may be said of the interposition of cold filler, to separate and thus to accentuate the warmths of wall and of rug. Such arrangement compels a well-defined and lively tone reaction of each on the other, and, by supplying the contrast needed for play of color according to law, heightens the effect cf both. No room ornamentation can be entirely satisfactory or wholly effective, in which this color antiphony is wanting. Color-Law so decides, and those who know it best, and who enjoy the broadest experience, are most thoroughly convinced that the law of gravitation is not more inflexible, nor less patient of discussion. But, already, the room begins to respond to our wishes. In a measure, we find thc matchless home-look so earnestly sought! Every added detail promises future gratification and gives present reward for our efforts. Even now, an enseirdile invites so encouragingly, that the owner is eager to see installed in its allotted space each intended belonging, He is in haste to add the very last ornament of window drapery and revel in the finishing fluffiness of unstinted white lace. 1889.] Row Color-Law affect8 our Home8. 125 When, finally, every individual object has not only found a place, but is in itwhen the room reeks with prim precision, Color-Law deftly begins to undo each collection of stereotyped, provincial common-place. There is clear fascination in the opportunity to watch and to follow the happy touches of skill- ful disorder, with which finished art upsets all traces of machine- made uniformity, and, as painters say, spoils every separate group of plumb-line and brick-wall accuracy. It is well worth while to remark that here, near the window, a scrap of flimsy old-gold stuff serves admirably to blunt the sharp edges of various corners, whose right angles bristle with too frequent exactness. And it is interesting to study this trifling chiffon now metamorphosed into a matter of serious im- portance and endowed with art significance. While there, on the opposite side, over the low mantel, a simple, blue-blacked oriental fan hurries out from behind the gilding of a broad frame, with no object immediately apparent; but, by the power of this single motion, it supplies an additional color-play with its grateful coolness against the side-wall warmth. Thus it pleasingly interrupts over-repetition of a neighbors outline. This it does, not alone by virtue of prop- erly contrasted color, but through force of opposing shape in rounded form. Picturesque spots of warm or of cold color are fixed here, and suspended there, but everywhere contrived to come between the eye and sonic relief-giving tone, intended to act as background. Thus, inimitable and inexhaustable, Color-Law contrives to better everything with a seemingly simple, but really, magic hand. The result follows, of course! Familiarity with, and knowledge of, color is asserted as clearly by this room, as was inexperience and lack of judgment by the monochromic house- exterior already criticized. Color-Law is always ready to help and is far from being un- sociable, but the honor of its friendly acquaintance is not ac- corded to any one, unsolicited. More than that, this same honor must be as honestly earned, as where deserved it is im- partially granted. An unmistakable art vocation may exist with sympathies inclined to satisfaction from severe outlines of form, rather 126 How Color.Lctw ctffect8 our Home8. [Feb., than from more sensuous beauty of color. Such colder en- thusiasm may not be offended by monotony of straight line or frequent repetition of right-angle, that starve and grieve the eye specially endowed for enjoyment of color. But, these gifted temperaments are deeply penetrated with the color truths here presented. Inspired with knowledge- compelled respect for these truths they are both dead in earnest. Both insist that the last words repeat the first. They both wish it announced, published, proclaimed to all concerned, t~at,in matters where pigment is employed, in any form what- ever, all discussion is useless and every contentious wriggle is in vain; that, in each case where color is selected and applied it is entirely right, or must be absolutely wrong. Color-Law, alone, decides the question. Its ruling is final; from its de- cision, there can be no appeal. F. WAYLAND FELLOWES. 1889.] Philo, and his latest interpreter. 127 ARTICLE V.PHILO, AND HIS LATEST INTERPRETER. Philo Judaeus; or the Jewish-Alexandrian Philosophy in its Development and Completion. By J ~E5 IDHUMMOND, ILL.D., Principal of Manchester New College, London. 2 vols. London: Williams and Norgate, 1888. THE studies of which these volumes are the outcome orlgl- nated, we are told, in the desire to learn at first hand what Philo thought, and why he thought it (Pref. p. iii.). A book from this source should be heartily welcomed, for it is a mat- ter of no common interest to know what Philo thought, and why. We may briefly state the reasons for this interest before asking how far it finds satisfaction in the present work. During the life-time of Philo, the Jew of Alexandria, Jesus of Nazareth lived and labored, and the Christian religion began its course in the world. The work of these two men, of one age and race, invites comparison. There are points of likeness between the movement initiated by Jesus, and that represented by Philo. In each, Judaism forsook its narrow limits and moved toward universality. Jesus did not in form, and Philo did not in intention, break with the traditional religion, but by both the particularism and the legalism of Jewish faith and practice were in principle abolished. Both in Christianity and in Alexandrian philosophy, Judaism opened its hand to the Greeks, and offered its treasures to the world. But Christianity did not, like Alexandrianism, set out to make Jews Greeks, and Greeks Jews,~~* to reconcile by philosophy and in books Jewish conceptions with current ideas. It rather rose to a higher plane where there is no distinction between Jew and Greek, for the same Lord is Lord of all. Alexan- drianisin rationalized Judaism, Christianity spiritualized it. In another respect Philo attempted what Jesus accomplished. A mediation between God and the world, and between God and man, was felt to be needed. It was sought in Egypt by * Schftrer, Gesehiclite des jiidischen Volkes, II., p. 872.

1889.] Philo, and his latest interpreter. 127 ARTICLE V.PHILO, AND HIS LATEST INTERPRETER. Philo Judaeus; or the Jewish-Alexandrian Philosophy in its Development and Completion. By J ~E5 IDHUMMOND, ILL.D., Principal of Manchester New College, London. 2 vols. London: Williams and Norgate, 1888. THE studies of which these volumes are the outcome orlgl- nated, we are told, in the desire to learn at first hand what Philo thought, and why he thought it (Pref. p. iii.). A book from this source should be heartily welcomed, for it is a mat- ter of no common interest to know what Philo thought, and why. We may briefly state the reasons for this interest before asking how far it finds satisfaction in the present work. During the life-time of Philo, the Jew of Alexandria, Jesus of Nazareth lived and labored, and the Christian religion began its course in the world. The work of these two men, of one age and race, invites comparison. There are points of likeness between the movement initiated by Jesus, and that represented by Philo. In each, Judaism forsook its narrow limits and moved toward universality. Jesus did not in form, and Philo did not in intention, break with the traditional religion, but by both the particularism and the legalism of Jewish faith and practice were in principle abolished. Both in Christianity and in Alexandrian philosophy, Judaism opened its hand to the Greeks, and offered its treasures to the world. But Christianity did not, like Alexandrianism, set out to make Jews Greeks, and Greeks Jews,~~* to reconcile by philosophy and in books Jewish conceptions with current ideas. It rather rose to a higher plane where there is no distinction between Jew and Greek, for the same Lord is Lord of all. Alexan- drianisin rationalized Judaism, Christianity spiritualized it. In another respect Philo attempted what Jesus accomplished. A mediation between God and the world, and between God and man, was felt to be needed. It was sought in Egypt by * Schftrer, Gesehiclite des jiidischen Volkes, II., p. 872. 128 Philo, and hi8 lctte8t Interpreter. [Feb., speculation and in the region of ideas, it was found in Juda~a by faith and in a life. To those who had sought for such a mediator in the Logos of philosophy, the Christian message was, the Logos became flesh and dwelt among ~ In the sense of sin and the desire for deliverance from its bondage, Philos language often reminds us of the New Testa- ment, and especially of Paul. But sin in his view was closely connected with the body and with ignorance, so that the renun- ciation of sense and the enlightenment of the mind were the ways of salvation, and its end was the vision of God in ecstasy. The trouble and the remedy were metaphysically and intellec- tually conceived rather than spiritually. It is interesting, then, to know what Philo thought, because he was a Jew of the time of Christ, and because he tried to make Judaism universal, or rather to show that it was so, to find a mediator between God and man, and to escape evil and attain good by the knowledge of God. But it is safer and more profitable to deal with actual histori- cal relations than with ideal comparisons, and it is on the field of history that Philo is of greatest significance. He is signifi- cant as the outcome and representative of a development, and as the source of an influence. The development of Judaism on Greek soil and amid Greek influences is a most striking spectacle. Jewish and Greek ideas have so deeply influenced western and modern thought, that their first meeting is an event of peculiar interest. Alexanders conquest had brought Greek culture into the east, while Jews of the Dispersion were living in almost all the cities of the civilized world; so that the most favorable opportunities existed for the interchange of ideas. There were, in Philos time, a million Jews in Egypt. That was their home. Greek was their native tongue, and they were not unacquainted with Greek literature and philosophy. The early stages of the development of Judaism under these conditions are in much obscurity. Philo refers to predecessors of whom we have no further knowledge. The Septuagint, with the Apocrypha, especially the Wisdom of Solomon, the older Sibylline Oracles, the fragments remaining of Demetrins, Artapanus, Aristobulus (whom Dr. Drammond, contrary to the prevailing opinion, 1889.] Philo, and his latest 1nte~yreter. 129 considers not genuine), II., III. and IV. Maccabees,these are the principal sources from which information abQut Hellenistic Judaism can be obtained. They are by no means sufficient to enable us to trace the movement in detail, and we are almost entirely dependent on Philo for a knowledge of its character. Various answers have been given to the question, in what the distinctive peculiarity of Alexandrian Judaism consists. That it was a blending of Greek philosophy with Jewish relig- ion is not an adequate answer, for questions remain as to the purpose and method of the blending. From which side came the impulse, and which furnished the material, which the form, of the new product? Philo belongs to the history both of Judaism and of Greek philosophy, and his signilicance is differently estimated accord- ing to the path by which he is approached. Dr. Drummond traces the line of preparation on Jewish ground. In Jewish thought, as contrasted with Greek, the personality of God and his elevation above the world were emphasized. In later Judaism, with a widening mental horizon and a failing religious sense, this transcendence of God was carried so far as to threaten the very being of religion. God was removed beyond the reach of human knowledge and aspiration, and put out of all contact with the world and men. But the old faith of the Jews in the revelation of God to man and the destination of man for God survived in unreconciled contradiction to their theological thought. When they found the philosophy of the west, they looked to it to remove the contradiction. It was, then, the problem of the Alexandrian philosophy to harmonize, in conformity with Greek method and with the assistance of Greek ideas, these two tendencies of thought, neither of which could it disown without being false to the Jewish faith. It endeavored to bring the transcendent God whose essence was incognizable by the human mind, into the requisite relations with nature and man by the mediation of certain powers~ (Drummond, I. p. 135). This is one statement of the impulse and character of the movement. Zeller, on the other hand, the historian of Greek philosophy, is at pains to show that on Greek soil the essential elements of Alexandrian philosophy were prepared, without oriental inter- 130 Philo, and his latest Interpreter. [Feb.~ ference.* Greek thought had run out into scepticism, distrust of humau thought, and despair of its ability to find the truth. If kuowledge was attainable it must be by some other path than speculation. When the Greeks came into contact with the religions of the east, they were ready to receive from them the solution which philosophy had failed to give to the problem of life. The distinguishing peculiarity of the movement to which Jewish Alexandrianism belongs, lies in the attempt through divine revelation to attain to a knowledge and blessedness which are denied to scientific thought as such (Zeller, III. ii. 69 f.). The new movement owed its impulse, then, to Greek philosophy, and lay in the direct course of its development. When thought despairs of finding truth in itself, it naturally seeks it outside of itself; when one has lost confidence in science, he throws himself into the arms of faith~ (Zeller, 77 f. cf. 417 f.). This is a second statement of the character of the movement. There was, in fact, preparation and continuity on both paths. The Jewish thinkers who . . . ventured on the uncertain path of philosophical speculation, were not seduced into a course wholly alien to their habits of mind (iDrummond, I. 159). Nor were the Greeks led away into strange paths by the attraction of oriental ideas. When the two came together it was by a common impulse, each seeking help from the other. At their meeting, the Jew became speculative, and the Greek became religions. The result was a strange mixture of rationalism and supernaturalism. So that the Jewish Alexaudrian philosophy can be described, on the one hand, as an attempt to express the great religious conceptions of Moses and the Prophets in the language of the philosophical schools, and to bring into rational harmony the dogmas of a supernatural revelation and the results of speculative thought (Drummond, I. 3); and, on the other hand, as an attempt by divine illumination to rise above sense, and even above consciousness, and attain in ecstasy the vision of God (cf. Zeller, 416); it is the longing for divine help and revelation, says Zeller, that forms the root of Philos system (p. 359). The movement is speculative in * Die Philosophie der Grieclien, iii. ii. pp. 69 if, and 242 if. (3. Aufi. 1881.) 1889.] Pitilo, and hi8 lctee8t Interpreter. 131 one aspect, and practical in another. The two elements, reason and faith, were not, however, thoroughly harmonized. There is in the fundamental tendency of Philos system the contra- diction of demanding the closest union with a being whose conception makes the union thoroughly impossible (Zeller, 417). Philos work was throughout, in form, in content, and in aim, an effort at mediation. He sought to mediate between the written revelation of Judaism and the current ideas of the time. For this impossible task allegory was the instrument, which he borrowed from the Stoics and bequeathed to the Fathers. He renounced the literal sense of scripture, and brought out of it, as the tine meaning, and with all honesty, such things as he thought to be true. This determines his method. He sought to mediate between a transcendent God and the finite world. The means chosen for this purpose were the Logos and subordinate Powers, borrowed from many sources, but mainly from Plato and the Stoics, and bequeathed to Chris- tians, and especially to the Gnostics. This determines the mat- ter of his philosophy. But he was practical in his underlying purpose, and sought the mediation that religion attempts between the finite and the infinite. How can man be brought near to God? Philo answers, by the denial of sense, by contemplation, reaching its goal in ecstasy. Philo was not an ascetic, but the roots of as- ceticism were in him, and he left them to Christianity as his last bequest. Philo supposed himself true to the faith of the fathers, but he was self-deceived. Dr. IDrummond says that the learning of the Greeks only supplied the mould in which his thought was cast; the material was drawn from the best traditions of Hebrew piety~ (I. 359). The statement may be accepted as expressing Philos own estimate of his work. But Schiirer s account is closer to the fact. His Judaism consists essentially in the formal claim that the Jewish people, on the grouud of the Mosaic revelation, are in possession of the highest religious knowledgeone might almost say, of the true religious illumni- nation. In the maeerial respect, Greek views have gained the 132 Philo., and hi~ late8t Interpreter. [Feb., upper hand (p. 872). The mediation between Jewish faith and Greek speculation was impossible, and Philo, in attempt- ing it, unconsciously sacrificed Judaism. He intended to put Jewish ideas into Greek forms, and supposed that he was do- ing so, but in reality he did the reverse. These remarks may serve to suggest the character and signifi- cance of the movement of which Philo was, by no means the beginning and end, but the outcome and representative. He does not stand alone. He was not a great creative genius. Much of our interest in knowing what he thought is due to the fact that many at that time were thinking as he did, not only in Egypt, but throughout the Dispersion, and doubtless even in Palestine ;* and what men were thinking when Chris- tianity came among them, we cannot bxtt wish to know. But apart from his representative character and the light he throws on the inner movements of his time, it cannot be denied that Philo is a figure of considerable importance in his own right, that he made a decided impression upon the world.t He wrote for Jews and for Greeks, to make Jews Greeks and Greeks Jews. If he was not largely succes~ful in this effort, yet he accomplished something in both directions. Upon later Greek thought (Neo-Pythagorean and Neo-Platonic) his influence was considerable (Siegfried, pp. 275- 278, Zeller, pp. 421 if.). In part directly and in part through Neo-Platonism, he reached iRabbinic Judaism, and affected to some extent its method of interpretation and its forms of thought (Sieg. 278 ff.)4 In gen- eral, however, as Schiirer remarks (p. 883), the influence of Jewish Alexandrianism was gradually displaced, among the Jews of the Dispersion, by that of Pharisaism, and among the Greeks, by that of Christianity. Christianity, however, was itself not a little affected by Philo, so that quite his most important influence was upon those for whom he did not write and of whom he knew nothing (cf. Siegfried, 303399). Certain points * For evidence, see Freudenthal, Alexander Polyhistor, 18Th, pp. 6577, 125130. t.On his influence was especially Siegfried, Philo von Alexandria, 1875, pp. 275-399, though he treats primarily only of the influence of the Philonic interpretation of Scripture. ~ On Philos relation to the Rabbins, see also Ritter, Philo und die Halacha, 1879. 1889.] Philo, and ki8 lctte~t Jn~eryreter. 133 of parallelism between his effort and that of Christianity have already been pointed ont, and certain bequests of his to the Fathers of the church have been mentioned. It would be beyond the scope of this notice to discuss the question of Philos relation to Christianity. To put Alexandrianism, with Gfrdrer, among the original sources of Christianity would be impossible. Nor would it be just to trace exclusively, or mainly, to Philo, the three errors of the early church already alluded to, the allegorical interpretation of Scripture, extrav- agance in speculation, and monasticism, though in all these directions his influence is undoubted. What it was, and how extensive, may be left in question, but it was certainly such and so great that it is important for us to know what he thought and why he thought it. With this we may turn to the book that offers us this knowledge. In Dr. Drummond, Philo has found an admiring friend as well as a careful student. The book is the result of original and prolonged research by a scholar whose competence is al- ready well known. We find in it, first, a review of Greek philosophy, so far as it bears upon Jewish Alexandrianism and especially upon its central principle, the Logos; then, an account of the blending of ilellenism and Judaism till the time of Philo. Then follows the exposition of Philos philosophy, discussing in order, the origin and nature of philosophy, the universe and the problems it suggests, anthropology, the ex- istence and nature of God, the divine Powers, the Logos, and the higher anthropology. The treatment is strictly expository, and all such questions as the relation of Philo to Christianity are left untouched. If this disappoints our curiosity, it has obvious advantages in the scientific view. Of the results of his work the writer says: I have been led to entertain views which differ on fundamental points from those which are most current, and have arrived, rightly or wrongly, at a much higher estimate of Philos speculative power than at one time I was tempted to form from the strange and in- coherent jumble which has been ascribed to him by some eminent expositors (Pref. iv.). It may not be amiss to summarize briefly the main points of his disagreement with current views. Some conception may thus be conveyed of the temper and conclu 134 Philo, and hi8 late8t Interpreter. [Feb., sions of the book, though not of the character of the argu- ment. The views advanced and those refuted will be stated, as far as possible, by quotation, and without criticism. 1. Philo adopted the Platonic conception of matter, as an eternal, formless existence, the passive but necessary condition of creation, the substance out of which God fashioned the world. The dualism thus implied is never reconciled with the monotheistic faith which Philo, as a Jew, affirmed. The diffi- culty is increased by the apparent attribution of evil to matter, and the consequent disparagement of the bodily life. It has been commonly held that he was hopelessly inconsistent at this point, representing matter sometimes as necessary, and some- times as harmful, now as passive, and now as limiting the di- vine power. Dr. Drummond defends Philo, in part, from this charge. Matter was, indeed, conceived by him as eternal, but not as actively evil. The source of imperfection was not in the material as opposed to the spiritual, but in the phenomenal as opposed to the eternal. Incurable disabilities belong to all material things, not because they are made of matter, but because they are made (I. 310 if; II. 297). Philo says that the body was made by God, but he could hardly depart so widely from his general doctrine as to make God the creator of what was absolutely evil; and therefore we must be dealing, not with an intrinsically malignant matter, but with that which is relatively inferior, in the preference of which moral evil con- sists (II. 300). 2. Philo has been charged with holding a materialistic con- ception of the human mind. Our philosopher, says Zeller, cannot hold himself entirely free from materialistic ideas of the nature of the soul (III. ii. p. 396). This Dr. Drummond confidently denies. The essence of the mind is nothing less than the Divine Being, of whom it is an impression, or frag- ment, or ray (I. 328). These words would seem to justify rather than to refute Zellers statement, but in Dr. Drummonds judgment they were meant to be taken figuratively. 3. In his doctrine of God, Philo has often been accused of vacillating between a negative and a positive description. This is due to the attempt to unite the abstract deity of philosophy with the personal God of Israel, to escape all anthropomorpli 1889.] P1db, and ki8 late8t Interpreter. 135 isms, and yet affirm all perfections. He wavers continually in his utterances concerning the deity between the negative de- scription in which all predicates must be denied of God, and the positive in which all perfection must be ascribed to him. We cannot hope to resolve this contradiction; it is enough that we recognize it and point out its grounds (Zeller, p. 354). Dr. Drummond acknowledges a certain verbal contradiction, but thinks that Philo was aware of it and attempted its solu- tion (II. 23 if.). God is, indeed, described as without qualities (diroeoc~, but the word is used in its logical meaning, and de- notes that which does not belong to a class, but is 8w& f/ener~8. God is beyond classification because he is alone and dependent on nothing but himself. Philo could consistently deny quali~ ties of God and yet affirm properties, or attributes of him, such as eternity, self-existence, omnipotence, perfection, because these do not place him in a class with others. Even attributes which belong in some measure to man, such as freedom, mercy, good- ness, can consistently be ascribed to a God without qualities, because man possesses these attributes only so far as he shares in the divine nature, while God contains them and is their source. God is not like man because he is just and good, but man, so far as he is just and good, participates in Gods being. It would be more correct to say that the good is divine tban to say that God is good (II. 27, 30). It is not the logical empti- ness but the real fullness of God that Philo is concerned to maintain. God, instead of being an empty abstraction, con- tains in his infinite fullness the eternal essence of all perfect things (II. 34). By this peculiar (realistic) conception of the attributes, Philo saves himself, in Dr. Drummonds view, from inconsistency, and makes the strictest speculative thought minister to religious aspiration. 4. Dr. Drummonds most important deviation from the pre- vailing view of Philos interpreters relates to the divine Powers and the Logos. Philos Powers are the mediators by which he attempts to bring God into connection with the world. As mediators they must, it would seem, share in the nature of each of the contrasted beings, though identical with neither; and they are, in fact, spoken of as divine, and yet as distinct from God, as impersonal attributes of God, and again as his 136 Philo, and hi8 late8t Interpreter. [Feb., personal agents. Zeller says that the contradiction was in- evitable, and that it could not, in the nature of the case, have been perceived by Philo (p. 365). Dr. Drummonds discus- sion of the matter is elaborate and most instructive. He main- tains that the Powers are impersonal; not independent entities, but attributes of God, or, more exactly, modes of the divine activity. They are in essence ideas of God, and they appear as the forms and forces of finite things. They make up col- lectively the nature, or essence of God, so far as it can be im- pressed upon matter and comprehended by finite minds. They are not ontologically distinct from God. They are not sub- stitutes for God. It is he that is everywhere, and the Powers are introduced simply to explain the mode of his omnipresence~ (II. 108). Their function was not to keep God out of the world, but to bring him into it (p. 107). They are like the plans in the mind of the architect, if these be conceived as also the forces that hold the finished structure together. Apart from God they would be nothing, and the world apart from them would be nothing. They are fitted to mediate between the universe and God, not because they waver between the two and are different from both, but because strictly separable from neither (p. 116). This view, Dr. Drummond insists, can be fairly derived from Philos language, and is something better than sheer nonsense. On the other hand he could not have meant to represent God as physically outside the universe, and therefore requiring separate persons inferior to himself to act upon matter for him. Language that seems to imply this is to be understood as rhetorical personification, of which Phih was certainly fond (p. 123 if.), or as due to the exigencies of his allegorical interpretation. 5. The Logos presents the same problem, for it is simply the sum and unity of the Powers, the most general mediator between God and the universe. According to Zeller (whom Schiirer and others follow), the Logos appears in Philo, on the one hand, as a power or property of God, and on the other, as a separate being beside God. The peculiarity of his repre- sentation consists precisely in this, that he does not notice the contradiction, that the conception of Logos vacillates uncer- tainly between personal and impersonal being. This peculi 1889.] Philo, and his latest interpreter. 187 arity is mistaken if one regards the Phulonic Logos as simply a person outside of God, or as only God in a definite relation. In Phios view he is both, and on that very account neither of the two exclusively (p. 378). Dr. Drnmmond, however, will not admit the alternative, and thinks Zellers solution violent and unwarrantable. The Thought of God permanently impressed upon the universe is not God under a definite relation, nor is it a person outside of God, nor is it an illogical mixture of the two conceptions (II. 223). It is, then, the thought of God that Dr. Drummond understands by the Logos; the one Thought expressive of the Divine~ (p. 160); the expressed Thought of God, which takes up into itself all inferior ideas, and combines into one force all the forces of nature~~ (p. 171); the Mind or Reason of the nniverse, which is not the divine essence itself, but a mode of that essence (p. 183). God is be- fore and above the Logos, for he does not participate in Rea- son, but exhausts and transcends it. We depend upon it for our reason, but it depends upon God for its existence (p. 184). Man is the image of the Logos, and the Logos is the image of God (p. 187). All other things are an expression of Thought, but Thought is an expression of God alone (p. 189). The Logos therefore stands between God and the world, inseparable from either; the thought of God and the force that gives re- ality to things (p. 190 f.). It is as though the artists thought were not only visible in the form of the statue, but were the enduring power which held its particles together. The thought would then mediate between the mind and the marble block, and seem to border on both the ontological and the phenomenal realms (p. 191). The Logos . . . is not a demiurge who acts for or instead of God, but is Gods own ra- tional energy acting upon matter (p. 192 f.). It follows that the separate personality of the Logos would be a purely dis- turbing element, and introduce a quite needless perplexity into an otherwise coherent system (p. 223), and Philo cannot have meant to assert it. Where he seems to do so, we are to make allowance for his florid and rhetorical style, his fondness for personification, his mingling of the literal and the alle- gorical. Passages that appear to imply the personality of the Logos are quoted and discussed in great detail. The reader has voL. xmv. 10 138 Philo, and hi8 late8t Interpreter. [Feb., the material fully before him even for an unfavorable judg- ment. Dr. Drummond admits the looseness and uncertainty of Philos exposition, but maintains that the contradiction usu- ally ascribed to him is unfounded. From first to last, he concludes, the Logos is the Thought of God, dwelling subjec- tively in the Infinite Mind, planted out and made objective in the universe. The cosmos is a tissue of rational force, which images the beauty, the power, the goodness of its primeval fountain. The reason of man is this same rational force enter- ing into consciousness, and held by each in proportion to the truth and variety of his thoughts; and to follow it is the law of righteous living. Each form which we can differentiate as a distinct species, each rule of conduct which we can treat as an injunction of reason, is itself a Logos, one of those innumer- able thoughts or laws into which the universal thought may, though self-reflection, be resolved. And finally these Words, which are also Works, of God, tell us of the BEING from whom they came (p. 273). This description may profitably be com- pared with such an estimate as that of Siegfried (Philo, p. 223). The Logos of Philo appears, then, as a mixture of most vari- ous elements, and one cannot tell in a word what it is. It is the type of things, productive power of God, immanent reason of the world, Jewish archangel, high priest, sum of the divine world of emanations, simple being, multiplicity, God himself, distinct from God, attribute of God, independent being. The Logos of Philo is a thesaurus of all philosophizings on face, name, word, wisdom, angel, etc., in the Old Testa- ment and Palestinian Judaism, on ~o~da in Alexandrianism, and on the ~6ro~ among the Greeks. Was Philo a serious philosopher or a lawless eclectic? The two hundred pages, or more, which Dr. Drummond de- votes to the Divine Powers and the Logos, certainly deserve careful study. There will be differences of opinion as to the success of the argument. It will doubtless seem to some that the discussion has too much the tone of defense and apology. Some will think that the writer has idealized Philos thought, and made him say what he should have said. Yet the friendly interpreter is more likely than the critic to do justice to his author, and it is safe to say that the thought of Philo has not 1889.] P/Sb, and 158 late8t Interpreter. 139 been hitherto so thoroughly and fairly discussed, and that it can not be learned so well from any other source. Dr. Drummonds book is a most valflable addition to the literature of the subject, but the needs of the student of Philo are still numerous and pressing. There is need of a new edition of his works, and of critical introductions to the several books. There is need, as Schiirer has recently stated, of an adequate treatment of the Judai8rn of Philo. This would be a most welcome contribution toward the solving of a more general problem, of the greatest importance, on which we have reached as yet far less clearness and security than is sometimes sup- posed,the problem of the thoughts and beliefs of the Jews in the time of Christ. F. C. PORTER. 140 University Topic& [Feb., UNIVERSITY TOPICS. THE SEMITIC CLUB. The Semitic Club of the University has about forty members. Its meetings are on the second and fourth Wednesday evenings of each month. Wednesday evening, Jan. 23d, a paper was read by Mr. Charles II. Wissner on the first Assyrian period. The paper treated of the origin, character, and religious habits of the Assyrians. The period was separated into three divisions. (1.) The relation be- tween Assyria and Babylon, until the conquest of Babylon by Tiglath Adar I. The power of Babylon during this period was emphasized. (2.) From Adarpalekur to the son of Tiglath- pileser I. A detailed account was given of Tiglathpileser, the most important of the kings. (3.) From Shamshiramman II. to Ashurnirari. The most important events in the lives of Ashurnasirpal and Shalmeneser II., the two most prominent kings of this period, were given. YALE UNIVERSITY BULLETIN. No. 72.FouR WEEKS ENDING JANUARY 12, 1889. Sunday, December 16.Public WorshipBattell Chapel, 10.80 A. M. Rev. President Dwight. General Religious MeetingDwight Hall, 6.30 p. ~. To be conducted and addressed by students. Tuesday, December 18.Philosophical ClubPaper by Mr. B. M. Wright, on Pessimism. Room D, East Divinity Hall, 8 P. M. Wednesday, December 19.First College Term Ends, 6 P. M. Thursday, December 20.College Faculty Meeting7 Treasury Build- ing, 10 A. M. Tuesday, January 8.Second College Term begins, 8.10 A. K. Wednesday, January 9.Metaphysics (University Lecture)Professor Ladd. 194 Old Chapel, 4 P. K. History of Old Testament Prophecy (University Lecture)Professor Harper, Room B, Cabinet, 5 P. K. Thursday, January 10.The Young Preachers Outfit (Lecture in the Divinity School)Rev. Professor John A. Broadus, D.D., of Louisville, Ky. Marquand Chapel, 3 P. K.

140 University Topic& [Feb., UNIVERSITY TOPICS. THE SEMITIC CLUB. The Semitic Club of the University has about forty members. Its meetings are on the second and fourth Wednesday evenings of each month. Wednesday evening, Jan. 23d, a paper was read by Mr. Charles II. Wissner on the first Assyrian period. The paper treated of the origin, character, and religious habits of the Assyrians. The period was separated into three divisions. (1.) The relation be- tween Assyria and Babylon, until the conquest of Babylon by Tiglath Adar I. The power of Babylon during this period was emphasized. (2.) From Adarpalekur to the son of Tiglath- pileser I. A detailed account was given of Tiglathpileser, the most important of the kings. (3.) From Shamshiramman II. to Ashurnirari. The most important events in the lives of Ashurnasirpal and Shalmeneser II., the two most prominent kings of this period, were given. YALE UNIVERSITY BULLETIN. No. 72.FouR WEEKS ENDING JANUARY 12, 1889. Sunday, December 16.Public WorshipBattell Chapel, 10.80 A. M. Rev. President Dwight. General Religious MeetingDwight Hall, 6.30 p. ~. To be conducted and addressed by students. Tuesday, December 18.Philosophical ClubPaper by Mr. B. M. Wright, on Pessimism. Room D, East Divinity Hall, 8 P. M. Wednesday, December 19.First College Term Ends, 6 P. M. Thursday, December 20.College Faculty Meeting7 Treasury Build- ing, 10 A. M. Tuesday, January 8.Second College Term begins, 8.10 A. K. Wednesday, January 9.Metaphysics (University Lecture)Professor Ladd. 194 Old Chapel, 4 P. K. History of Old Testament Prophecy (University Lecture)Professor Harper, Room B, Cabinet, 5 P. K. Thursday, January 10.The Young Preachers Outfit (Lecture in the Divinity School)Rev. Professor John A. Broadus, D.D., of Louisville, Ky. Marquand Chapel, 3 P. K.

140 University Topic& [Feb., UNIVERSITY TOPICS. THE SEMITIC CLUB. The Semitic Club of the University has about forty members. Its meetings are on the second and fourth Wednesday evenings of each month. Wednesday evening, Jan. 23d, a paper was read by Mr. Charles II. Wissner on the first Assyrian period. The paper treated of the origin, character, and religious habits of the Assyrians. The period was separated into three divisions. (1.) The relation be- tween Assyria and Babylon, until the conquest of Babylon by Tiglath Adar I. The power of Babylon during this period was emphasized. (2.) From Adarpalekur to the son of Tiglath- pileser I. A detailed account was given of Tiglathpileser, the most important of the kings. (3.) From Shamshiramman II. to Ashurnirari. The most important events in the lives of Ashurnasirpal and Shalmeneser II., the two most prominent kings of this period, were given. YALE UNIVERSITY BULLETIN. No. 72.FouR WEEKS ENDING JANUARY 12, 1889. Sunday, December 16.Public WorshipBattell Chapel, 10.80 A. M. Rev. President Dwight. General Religious MeetingDwight Hall, 6.30 p. ~. To be conducted and addressed by students. Tuesday, December 18.Philosophical ClubPaper by Mr. B. M. Wright, on Pessimism. Room D, East Divinity Hall, 8 P. M. Wednesday, December 19.First College Term Ends, 6 P. M. Thursday, December 20.College Faculty Meeting7 Treasury Build- ing, 10 A. M. Tuesday, January 8.Second College Term begins, 8.10 A. K. Wednesday, January 9.Metaphysics (University Lecture)Professor Ladd. 194 Old Chapel, 4 P. K. History of Old Testament Prophecy (University Lecture)Professor Harper, Room B, Cabinet, 5 P. K. Thursday, January 10.The Young Preachers Outfit (Lecture in the Divinity School)Rev. Professor John A. Broadus, D.D., of Louisville, Ky. Marquand Chapel, 3 P. K. 1889.] Univer8ity TliOyiC8. 141 Friday January 11.1~?eshness in Preaching (Lecture in the Divinity School)Rev. Dr. Broadus. Ma.rquand Chapel, 3 P. ~r. Berkeley Asso- ciation (Evening Prayer)Room 89, Dwight Hall, 6.45 I. M. Political Science ClubPaper on the Reconstruction of Western Virginia, Mis- souri, and Tennessee, by Mr. Frederick W. Moore. 195 Old Chapel, 7.80 P. M. No. 73.Wrum ENDING JANUARY 19, 1889. Sunday, January 13.Public WorshipBattell Chapel, 10.80 A. M. Rev. Professor John A. Broadus, D. D., of Louisville, Ky. General Religious MeetingDwight Hall, 6.30 P. M. To be addressed by Profes- sor Reynolds. Thesday January 15.The Spanish School of Painting (Lecture in the Art School)Professor Hoppin. Art School, 3 P. ii. Sensation Preaching (Lecture in the Divinity School)Rev. Dr. Broadus. Mar- quand Chapel, 3 i. ~.r. German Readings (Goethes Hermann und Dorothea)Mr. Goodrich. Room C, Cabinet, 7.15 P. M. University Chamber ConcertNorth Sheffield Hall, 8.15 P. M. Wednesday, January l6.EvolutionProfessor J. D. Dana. Peabody Museum Lecture Room, 2 P. M. Metaphysics (University Lecture) Professor Ladd. 194 Old Chapel, 4 P. M. History of Old Testament Prophecy (University Lecture)Professor Harper, Room B, Cabinet, 5 r. M. Yale AssemblyDiscussion on the Propriety of the General Governments recognizing the Organization of Labor. Linonia Hall, 7.30 i. M. Thursday, January 17.Freedom in Preaching (Lecture in the Divin- ity School)Rev. Dr. Broadus. Marquand Chapel, 3 r. M. Friday, January 18.The Ministers General Reading (Lecture in the Divinity School)Rev. Dr. Broadus. Marquand Chapel, 3 P. M. College Faculty Meeting7 Treasury Building, 4 P. M. Berkeley Associa- tion (Evening Prayer)Room 89, Dwight Hall, 6.45 P. M. Lectures at the School of the Fine Arts.Professor Hoppin will give during the present term a course of ten Lectures, at the Art School, beginning on Tuesday, January 15, at 3 P. M., and continuing on succes- sive Tuesdays at the same hour. University Chamber Concerts.The second concert of the series will be given on Tuesday evening, January 15, by Messers. Dannreuther, Hartdegen and Richard Hoffman, with the following programme Beethoven,Trio, Op. 70, in D Major. Greig,Sonata Op. 8, in F Major, for Pianoforte and Violin. Schumann,Novelette, Wagner, Spinning Song, Piano Solo. Schubert,Trio, Op. 99, in B Flat. Tickets to the remaining five (possibly six) Concerts, at $2.00 for the series, can be obtained at the Treasurers Office at the Co-operative Store, at Beers Drug Store, and from the Janitor of North Sheffield Hall. Lectures on Evolution. Yale College.Professor J. D. Dana will give a course of nine Lectures on Evolution to the Senior Class, in the Lec- ture Room of the Peabody Museum, begining on Wednesday, January 16, at 2 p~ M., and continuing on successive Wednesdays at the same hour. 142 University Topics. [Feb., Subjects for Sophomore Compositions.Yale College.1. Anna Kar& . nina. (Tolst6L) 2. Matthew Arnold as a Critic. 3. Burkes Attitude towards the French Revolution. 4. Richard Steele. 5. New Haven Architecture. 6. Presidential Candidates since 1840. 7. Ballot Reform. 8. Ti-uists. 9. The Annexation of Canada. 10. The forms of Local Government in your own State. (Describe and discuss them.) 11. General Boulanger. The compositions will be due at No. 4 Treasury building on Saturday morning, February 9th. No. 74.WEEK ENDING JANUARY 26, 1889. Sunday, January 20.Public WorshipBattell Chapel, 10.30 A. M. Rev. George A. Gordon, of Boston, Mass. General Religious Meeting Dwight Hall, 6.30 ~. M. To be addressed by the Rev. Mr. Gordon. Tuesday, January 22.Last Day for payment of College Term Bills Treasurers Office, 9 A. M.-3 r. ~. The Spanish School of Painting (Lec- ture in the Art School)Professor Hoppin. Art School 3 P. M. Greek Readings (Eighteenth Book of the Jliad)Professor Seymour. 195 Old Chapel, 7-7.45 r. M. German Readings (Goethes Hermann und Dorothea) Mr. Goodrich. Room C, Cabinet, 7.15 ~. M. Philosophical Club Paper by Mr. J. F. Morse, on The Psychology of the Spiritual Life. Room D, East Divinity Hall, 8 P. M. Wednesday, January 23.EvolutionProfessorJ. D. Dana. Peabody Museum Lecture Room, 2 P. M. Metaphysics (University Lecture) Professor Ladd. 194 Old Chapel, 4 P. M. History of Old Testament Prophecy (University Lecture)Professor Harper. Room B, Cabinet, 5 P. M. Semitic ClubHistorical Paper by Mr. Charles H. Wissner, on The First Assyrian Period. Professor Harpers Residence, 135 College st., 7 P. ~. Thursday, January 24.The Ministers General Reading (Lecture in the Divinity School)Rev. Dr. Broadus. Marquand Chapel, 3 r. M. Friday, January 25.The Minister and his Hymn-book (Lecture in the Divinity School)Rev. Dr. Broadus. Marquand Chapel, 3 P. M. Berke- ley Association (Evening Prayer)Room 89, Dwight Hall, 6.45 P. M. Greek Readings.Professor Seymour will translate the last books of Homers Iliad, with brief comments, on successive Tuesday evenings at Room No. 195, Old Chapel. 1889.] Current Literature. 143 CURRENT LITERATURE. REALiSTIC IDEALISM.*~In his Introduction the author of these volumes takes pains to state clearly what kind of a philosophical system he has exposed and proposes to expound and defend. After a brief historical survey of the shifting phases and Protean shapes which the long and varied contest (i. e. of philosophy as to the true explanation of reality) has assumed, he sums up all in the following four Theories of the Universe: (1.) The Biblical- Supernatural Theory; (2.) The Materialistic-Machine Theory; (3.) The Mystical-Idealistic Theory; and (4.) The Realistic. Ideal Theory. The first of these four is said to be founded on the myths and miracles of the Bible, whereby philosophy is taken to be a science of matter and therefore becomes impossible and impertinent. The theory called Realistic-Ideal is the authors own, and is defined as holding that the Real and the Ideal are not two distinct worlds, but only the two sides or aspects of one and the same whole Actuality of real Essence and Power. The method of this philosophy is the universal method of the Metaphysical Logic which takes up all science into intel- ligible and clear solution. The first volume traces the proofs of this philosophical theory in the systems of notable thinkers, especially of ilegel; and the second volume attempts the same thing in the world of nature and mind. The book has evidently been undertaken with commendable seriousness by its author, and shows unmistakable signs of being the result of much painstaking reflection and wide reading. It shows, however, equally clear signs of dealing with many ques- tions which have never been thought through, or even made familiar in the way in which they become so to the trained phil- osopher; and as well as of taking not a few of its quoted opinions at second hand, with a misunderstanding of the real views of the authors quoted. We are again reminded of how difficult a task * Realistic Idealism in Philosophy Itself. By NATEANIEL HOLMES. 2 vols. Boston and New York: Houghton, Muffin & Co. 1888.

1889.] Current Literature. 143 CURRENT LITERATURE. REALiSTIC IDEALISM.*~In his Introduction the author of these volumes takes pains to state clearly what kind of a philosophical system he has exposed and proposes to expound and defend. After a brief historical survey of the shifting phases and Protean shapes which the long and varied contest (i. e. of philosophy as to the true explanation of reality) has assumed, he sums up all in the following four Theories of the Universe: (1.) The Biblical- Supernatural Theory; (2.) The Materialistic-Machine Theory; (3.) The Mystical-Idealistic Theory; and (4.) The Realistic. Ideal Theory. The first of these four is said to be founded on the myths and miracles of the Bible, whereby philosophy is taken to be a science of matter and therefore becomes impossible and impertinent. The theory called Realistic-Ideal is the authors own, and is defined as holding that the Real and the Ideal are not two distinct worlds, but only the two sides or aspects of one and the same whole Actuality of real Essence and Power. The method of this philosophy is the universal method of the Metaphysical Logic which takes up all science into intel- ligible and clear solution. The first volume traces the proofs of this philosophical theory in the systems of notable thinkers, especially of ilegel; and the second volume attempts the same thing in the world of nature and mind. The book has evidently been undertaken with commendable seriousness by its author, and shows unmistakable signs of being the result of much painstaking reflection and wide reading. It shows, however, equally clear signs of dealing with many ques- tions which have never been thought through, or even made familiar in the way in which they become so to the trained phil- osopher; and as well as of taking not a few of its quoted opinions at second hand, with a misunderstanding of the real views of the authors quoted. We are again reminded of how difficult a task * Realistic Idealism in Philosophy Itself. By NATEANIEL HOLMES. 2 vols. Boston and New York: Houghton, Muffin & Co. 1888.

1889.] Current Literature. 143 CURRENT LITERATURE. REALiSTIC IDEALISM.*~In his Introduction the author of these volumes takes pains to state clearly what kind of a philosophical system he has exposed and proposes to expound and defend. After a brief historical survey of the shifting phases and Protean shapes which the long and varied contest (i. e. of philosophy as to the true explanation of reality) has assumed, he sums up all in the following four Theories of the Universe: (1.) The Biblical- Supernatural Theory; (2.) The Materialistic-Machine Theory; (3.) The Mystical-Idealistic Theory; and (4.) The Realistic. Ideal Theory. The first of these four is said to be founded on the myths and miracles of the Bible, whereby philosophy is taken to be a science of matter and therefore becomes impossible and impertinent. The theory called Realistic-Ideal is the authors own, and is defined as holding that the Real and the Ideal are not two distinct worlds, but only the two sides or aspects of one and the same whole Actuality of real Essence and Power. The method of this philosophy is the universal method of the Metaphysical Logic which takes up all science into intel- ligible and clear solution. The first volume traces the proofs of this philosophical theory in the systems of notable thinkers, especially of ilegel; and the second volume attempts the same thing in the world of nature and mind. The book has evidently been undertaken with commendable seriousness by its author, and shows unmistakable signs of being the result of much painstaking reflection and wide reading. It shows, however, equally clear signs of dealing with many ques- tions which have never been thought through, or even made familiar in the way in which they become so to the trained phil- osopher; and as well as of taking not a few of its quoted opinions at second hand, with a misunderstanding of the real views of the authors quoted. We are again reminded of how difficult a task * Realistic Idealism in Philosophy Itself. By NATEANIEL HOLMES. 2 vols. Boston and New York: Houghton, Muffin & Co. 1888. 144 Current Literature. [Feb., it is intelligently and consistently even to state for adoption any metaphysical theory of the origin and significance of the world. THE SPIRIT OF BEAUTY.*~Thi5 little book contains a collection of spicy and entertaining essays which, for the most part, are a keen criticism of certain attempts made to apply the principles of Darwinian evolution to ethics and a~sthetics. The first of these essays is entitled Beauty and Beast. Here it is affirmed that the Spencerian and other evolutionary explanations of the origin of the idea of the beautiful have but a show of basis in the phenom- ena of animal life. The facts to which Darwin appealed in proof of the theory that beauty of coloring constitutes a prominent influence in natural selection, are deemed altogether inadequate for this purpose. Moreover, the occurrence of typical forms of beauty in widely separated species of animals, or even in inor- ganic structures, shows plainly that the a~sthetic is far too deeply seated in nature to be accounted for by the hypothesis of evolu- tion. Are we to believe with Ha~ckel, Dr. Parker inquires, that surviving savages show crudity as to their sense of color, and note with Grant-Allen that the average farmer sees in convolvulus nothing but a useless weed, and yet at the same time suppose that this latest, highest-cultured appreciation of the most exquisite shapes and colors existed all along, for untold ages, in bees and birds ? The other most important of these essays is entitled Mind in Animals. Upon this subject the author is rightly, ex- ceedingly distrustful of all the evidence ordinarily alleged to prove that even the most intelligent of the animals ever thinks, in the most true and proper sense of this word. Both the psychol- ogy and the logic are in the wrong, of those who ascribe the con- duct which results from blind, inherited impulse, or from wonder- fully acute sensation coupled with prompt and strong association, to true processes of abstraction, to the forming of general notions, and to ratiocination. Huxley is right: brutes are virtually auto- matons, but sensitive rather than conscious, as we can understand consciousness. * The Spirit of Beauty. Essays, Scientific and A~sthetic. By HENRY W. PARKER. New York: John B. Alden, 1888.

144 Current Literature. [Feb., it is intelligently and consistently even to state for adoption any metaphysical theory of the origin and significance of the world. THE SPIRIT OF BEAUTY.*~Thi5 little book contains a collection of spicy and entertaining essays which, for the most part, are a keen criticism of certain attempts made to apply the principles of Darwinian evolution to ethics and a~sthetics. The first of these essays is entitled Beauty and Beast. Here it is affirmed that the Spencerian and other evolutionary explanations of the origin of the idea of the beautiful have but a show of basis in the phenom- ena of animal life. The facts to which Darwin appealed in proof of the theory that beauty of coloring constitutes a prominent influence in natural selection, are deemed altogether inadequate for this purpose. Moreover, the occurrence of typical forms of beauty in widely separated species of animals, or even in inor- ganic structures, shows plainly that the a~sthetic is far too deeply seated in nature to be accounted for by the hypothesis of evolu- tion. Are we to believe with Ha~ckel, Dr. Parker inquires, that surviving savages show crudity as to their sense of color, and note with Grant-Allen that the average farmer sees in convolvulus nothing but a useless weed, and yet at the same time suppose that this latest, highest-cultured appreciation of the most exquisite shapes and colors existed all along, for untold ages, in bees and birds ? The other most important of these essays is entitled Mind in Animals. Upon this subject the author is rightly, ex- ceedingly distrustful of all the evidence ordinarily alleged to prove that even the most intelligent of the animals ever thinks, in the most true and proper sense of this word. Both the psychol- ogy and the logic are in the wrong, of those who ascribe the con- duct which results from blind, inherited impulse, or from wonder- fully acute sensation coupled with prompt and strong association, to true processes of abstraction, to the forming of general notions, and to ratiocination. Huxley is right: brutes are virtually auto- matons, but sensitive rather than conscious, as we can understand consciousness. * The Spirit of Beauty. Essays, Scientific and A~sthetic. By HENRY W. PARKER. New York: John B. Alden, 1888. 1889.] Current Literature. 145 THE VIRTUES AND THEIR REAsoNs*~.The author explains in the Preface that this treatise is especially adapted for moral training in the public schools and higher institutions of learning.~~ It is quite too elementary and devoid of all theoretical and scientific character, however, to be adapted to the latter class of educational institutions. Only some three pagescalled Intro- ductory are occupied with presentation of the Ground and Rule of Right and the Classification of Duties. The re- mainder of the book is taken up with remarks upon the various duties, both regarding others chiefly, and regarding self chiefly. These remarks it certainly would do no harm for the pupil in the public schools to study; and, if illustrated further and enforced by competent oral instruction, their study might result in good. THE LAW OF EQIJIVALENTS.t The following treatise, says its author, is semi-philosophical, semi-practical. It isthat is to saythe statement of a fundamental law, followed by the ex- position and application of the law to a variety of subjects in politi- cal and social morals. This law, when reduced to set formula, is stated in the following terms: For a large class of objects (in- deed for most objects that do not fall under the principles of mere trade), upon which men place a high value, nature exacts .as a price, not quantity, but specific quality of effort. For the attainment of these objects, payment must be made in exact kind; no barter or substitution is recognized. Neither will surplus offerings or endowments in some other than precisely the right direction atone for lack in this direction. After expounding and illustrating the different factors of this principle, and enumerating different, so-called equivalents, Mr. Payson proceeds to apply it to Woman Suffrage, the Family In- stitution, Education, etc. The book makes a vigorous stand for a very wholesome truth, and does this, on the whole, in an interesting and instructive manner. It is perhaps, however, rather too much of a continous sermon, and its style in places seems a little artificial and strained by the endeavor to be emphatic and impressive. * A System of Ethics for Society and Schools. By AUSTIN BIERBOWER. Chicago: George Sherwood & Co. 1888. ~ The Law of Equivalents in its Relation to Political and Social Ethics. By En- WARD PAYSON. Boston and New York: Houghton, Muffin & Co. 1888. VOL. XIV. ii

1889.] Current Literature. 145 THE VIRTUES AND THEIR REAsoNs*~.The author explains in the Preface that this treatise is especially adapted for moral training in the public schools and higher institutions of learning.~~ It is quite too elementary and devoid of all theoretical and scientific character, however, to be adapted to the latter class of educational institutions. Only some three pagescalled Intro- ductory are occupied with presentation of the Ground and Rule of Right and the Classification of Duties. The re- mainder of the book is taken up with remarks upon the various duties, both regarding others chiefly, and regarding self chiefly. These remarks it certainly would do no harm for the pupil in the public schools to study; and, if illustrated further and enforced by competent oral instruction, their study might result in good. THE LAW OF EQIJIVALENTS.t The following treatise, says its author, is semi-philosophical, semi-practical. It isthat is to saythe statement of a fundamental law, followed by the ex- position and application of the law to a variety of subjects in politi- cal and social morals. This law, when reduced to set formula, is stated in the following terms: For a large class of objects (in- deed for most objects that do not fall under the principles of mere trade), upon which men place a high value, nature exacts .as a price, not quantity, but specific quality of effort. For the attainment of these objects, payment must be made in exact kind; no barter or substitution is recognized. Neither will surplus offerings or endowments in some other than precisely the right direction atone for lack in this direction. After expounding and illustrating the different factors of this principle, and enumerating different, so-called equivalents, Mr. Payson proceeds to apply it to Woman Suffrage, the Family In- stitution, Education, etc. The book makes a vigorous stand for a very wholesome truth, and does this, on the whole, in an interesting and instructive manner. It is perhaps, however, rather too much of a continous sermon, and its style in places seems a little artificial and strained by the endeavor to be emphatic and impressive. * A System of Ethics for Society and Schools. By AUSTIN BIERBOWER. Chicago: George Sherwood & Co. 1888. ~ The Law of Equivalents in its Relation to Political and Social Ethics. By En- WARD PAYSON. Boston and New York: Houghton, Muffin & Co. 1888. VOL. XIV. ii

1889.] Current Literature. 145 THE VIRTUES AND THEIR REAsoNs*~.The author explains in the Preface that this treatise is especially adapted for moral training in the public schools and higher institutions of learning.~~ It is quite too elementary and devoid of all theoretical and scientific character, however, to be adapted to the latter class of educational institutions. Only some three pagescalled Intro- ductory are occupied with presentation of the Ground and Rule of Right and the Classification of Duties. The re- mainder of the book is taken up with remarks upon the various duties, both regarding others chiefly, and regarding self chiefly. These remarks it certainly would do no harm for the pupil in the public schools to study; and, if illustrated further and enforced by competent oral instruction, their study might result in good. THE LAW OF EQIJIVALENTS.t The following treatise, says its author, is semi-philosophical, semi-practical. It isthat is to saythe statement of a fundamental law, followed by the ex- position and application of the law to a variety of subjects in politi- cal and social morals. This law, when reduced to set formula, is stated in the following terms: For a large class of objects (in- deed for most objects that do not fall under the principles of mere trade), upon which men place a high value, nature exacts .as a price, not quantity, but specific quality of effort. For the attainment of these objects, payment must be made in exact kind; no barter or substitution is recognized. Neither will surplus offerings or endowments in some other than precisely the right direction atone for lack in this direction. After expounding and illustrating the different factors of this principle, and enumerating different, so-called equivalents, Mr. Payson proceeds to apply it to Woman Suffrage, the Family In- stitution, Education, etc. The book makes a vigorous stand for a very wholesome truth, and does this, on the whole, in an interesting and instructive manner. It is perhaps, however, rather too much of a continous sermon, and its style in places seems a little artificial and strained by the endeavor to be emphatic and impressive. * A System of Ethics for Society and Schools. By AUSTIN BIERBOWER. Chicago: George Sherwood & Co. 1888. ~ The Law of Equivalents in its Relation to Political and Social Ethics. By En- WARD PAYSON. Boston and New York: Houghton, Muffin & Co. 1888. VOL. XIV. ii 146 Current Literature. Du. McCosHs GOSPEL SERMoNs.~~*~These sermons will serve well the purpose for which they were published. It is intima- ted in the preface that they are designed as testimony to the authors interest in the Gospel. I am anxious that the public should know that much as I value philosophy, I place the Gospel of Jesus Christ above it. They have a pastoral quality that is interesting. Most of them are evidently the product of pas- toral experience. Some of them, we are informed, were preached to the students of Princeton College, but there is nothing of the academic quality about them. In range of thought they do not reach a very high level. They are, however, simple in style and clear in outline, following largely the textual method of treatment. They were selected for publication because they were supposed to present most clearly the way of salvation. It is not always easy to understand just what is meant by Gospel sermons, or by the way of salvation. Just what our venera- ble author would regard as the heart of the Gospel and just what his statement of the way of salvation would be is not made manifest by this volume. None of the sermons are distinc- tively apologetic. Some of them are prevailingly ethical, some are parenetic, and a few have a somewhat evangelistic quality. It may be intended to set forth the Gospel in its distinctive features. It is not done, however, either evangelistically or apol- ogetically. The chief interest of the volume is in the fact, that it is the product of a man who has won distinction in another and very different field of service and in the evidence which it furnishes that he holds the Gospel as a Christian experience and that he possesses a very kindly and genial spirit. L. 0. BRAsTow. THE NONSUCH PRovEssomfThis is a treatise on the Christian life in the form of a sermon. Like most of the sermons of the time in which it was written, the early part of this century, it first ~ Gospel Sermons. By JAMES McCosH, D.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Ex-President of Princeton College, Author of Method of Divine Goverunient; Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Examined, etc. New York: Robert Carter and BrotherB, 530 Broadway. 1888. * The Nonsuch Professor in his Meridian Splendor; or the Singular Actions of Sanctified Christians. By the Rev. WILLIAM SECKER, Minister of All-Hallows Church, Londonwall. With an Introduction by Rev. T. L. Cuyler, D.D. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers, 530 Broadway. 1888.

146 Current Literature. Du. McCosHs GOSPEL SERMoNs.~~*~These sermons will serve well the purpose for which they were published. It is intima- ted in the preface that they are designed as testimony to the authors interest in the Gospel. I am anxious that the public should know that much as I value philosophy, I place the Gospel of Jesus Christ above it. They have a pastoral quality that is interesting. Most of them are evidently the product of pas- toral experience. Some of them, we are informed, were preached to the students of Princeton College, but there is nothing of the academic quality about them. In range of thought they do not reach a very high level. They are, however, simple in style and clear in outline, following largely the textual method of treatment. They were selected for publication because they were supposed to present most clearly the way of salvation. It is not always easy to understand just what is meant by Gospel sermons, or by the way of salvation. Just what our venera- ble author would regard as the heart of the Gospel and just what his statement of the way of salvation would be is not made manifest by this volume. None of the sermons are distinc- tively apologetic. Some of them are prevailingly ethical, some are parenetic, and a few have a somewhat evangelistic quality. It may be intended to set forth the Gospel in its distinctive features. It is not done, however, either evangelistically or apol- ogetically. The chief interest of the volume is in the fact, that it is the product of a man who has won distinction in another and very different field of service and in the evidence which it furnishes that he holds the Gospel as a Christian experience and that he possesses a very kindly and genial spirit. L. 0. BRAsTow. THE NONSUCH PRovEssomfThis is a treatise on the Christian life in the form of a sermon. Like most of the sermons of the time in which it was written, the early part of this century, it first ~ Gospel Sermons. By JAMES McCosH, D.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Ex-President of Princeton College, Author of Method of Divine Goverunient; Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Examined, etc. New York: Robert Carter and BrotherB, 530 Broadway. 1888. * The Nonsuch Professor in his Meridian Splendor; or the Singular Actions of Sanctified Christians. By the Rev. WILLIAM SECKER, Minister of All-Hallows Church, Londonwall. With an Introduction by Rev. T. L. Cuyler, D.D. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers, 530 Broadway. 1888.

146 Current Literature. Du. McCosHs GOSPEL SERMoNs.~~*~These sermons will serve well the purpose for which they were published. It is intima- ted in the preface that they are designed as testimony to the authors interest in the Gospel. I am anxious that the public should know that much as I value philosophy, I place the Gospel of Jesus Christ above it. They have a pastoral quality that is interesting. Most of them are evidently the product of pas- toral experience. Some of them, we are informed, were preached to the students of Princeton College, but there is nothing of the academic quality about them. In range of thought they do not reach a very high level. They are, however, simple in style and clear in outline, following largely the textual method of treatment. They were selected for publication because they were supposed to present most clearly the way of salvation. It is not always easy to understand just what is meant by Gospel sermons, or by the way of salvation. Just what our venera- ble author would regard as the heart of the Gospel and just what his statement of the way of salvation would be is not made manifest by this volume. None of the sermons are distinc- tively apologetic. Some of them are prevailingly ethical, some are parenetic, and a few have a somewhat evangelistic quality. It may be intended to set forth the Gospel in its distinctive features. It is not done, however, either evangelistically or apol- ogetically. The chief interest of the volume is in the fact, that it is the product of a man who has won distinction in another and very different field of service and in the evidence which it furnishes that he holds the Gospel as a Christian experience and that he possesses a very kindly and genial spirit. L. 0. BRAsTow. THE NONSUCH PRovEssomfThis is a treatise on the Christian life in the form of a sermon. Like most of the sermons of the time in which it was written, the early part of this century, it first ~ Gospel Sermons. By JAMES McCosH, D.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Ex-President of Princeton College, Author of Method of Divine Goverunient; Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Examined, etc. New York: Robert Carter and BrotherB, 530 Broadway. 1888. * The Nonsuch Professor in his Meridian Splendor; or the Singular Actions of Sanctified Christians. By the Rev. WILLIAM SECKER, Minister of All-Hallows Church, Londonwall. With an Introduction by Rev. T. L. Cuyler, D.D. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers, 530 Broadway. 1888. 1889.] Current Literature. 14T discusses the subject doctrinally and then practically. The whole discussion, however, is eminently practical in its subject matter and in its style. The pith and pungency of the sentences do not fail to leave an impression. They are short and aphoristic. They abound in the short metaphor, the antithesis and the climax. An impression of artificiality results, as if the writer had consciously elaborated this style. At any rate one wearies of it after awhile. One could name two or three well known American preachers whose style of preaching strikingly resembles that of Archbishop Secker in this sententious and aphoristic quality. The book, how- ever, is a helpful one and may be read with profit. It is far bet- ter than the ordinary manual of devotion. L. 0. BRAsTow. THE SERMON BIBLE.*We have here a collection of extracts from modern sermons, mostly of the expository sort, based upon passages contained in the first ten books of the Bible. It is the first of a proposed series of twelve volumes which shall contain the essence of the best homiletical literature of this generation. Thus fragments of exposition of all the books of the Bible will be brought to our notice. The plan is not unlike that of Spur- geon s Treasury of David. The latter is on a larger scale, how- ever, and has a more complex object. It gathers a larger variety of material and wholly from the older writers and preachers and is intended as an aid to practical devotion as well as pulpit work. The work before us deals wholly with modern preachers and writ- ers, is limited mostly to expository discourse and is intended as an aid to preachers. It is confidently hoped that this volume will prove an indispensable part of every preachers library.~~ As a study of varieties of expository method in preaching it may be of great value to preachers. Nothing that has ever been pub- lished will equal it in this respect. It may also be a great aid for devotional uses. It will not fail moreover to leave a strong im- pression of the homiletic suggestiveness of the Bible, even of those portions of it which seem least fruitful and least practically useful. As to the rest its value is more than doubtful. The se- lections are from a great variety of sources. The nearly three hundred preachers or authors represented here are for the most part well known and favorably known. The selections from their * The Sermon Bible. Genesis to IL Samuel. New York: A. 0. Armstrong & Son, 714 Broadway. 1888.

1889.] Current Literature. 14T discusses the subject doctrinally and then practically. The whole discussion, however, is eminently practical in its subject matter and in its style. The pith and pungency of the sentences do not fail to leave an impression. They are short and aphoristic. They abound in the short metaphor, the antithesis and the climax. An impression of artificiality results, as if the writer had consciously elaborated this style. At any rate one wearies of it after awhile. One could name two or three well known American preachers whose style of preaching strikingly resembles that of Archbishop Secker in this sententious and aphoristic quality. The book, how- ever, is a helpful one and may be read with profit. It is far bet- ter than the ordinary manual of devotion. L. 0. BRAsTow. THE SERMON BIBLE.*We have here a collection of extracts from modern sermons, mostly of the expository sort, based upon passages contained in the first ten books of the Bible. It is the first of a proposed series of twelve volumes which shall contain the essence of the best homiletical literature of this generation. Thus fragments of exposition of all the books of the Bible will be brought to our notice. The plan is not unlike that of Spur- geon s Treasury of David. The latter is on a larger scale, how- ever, and has a more complex object. It gathers a larger variety of material and wholly from the older writers and preachers and is intended as an aid to practical devotion as well as pulpit work. The work before us deals wholly with modern preachers and writ- ers, is limited mostly to expository discourse and is intended as an aid to preachers. It is confidently hoped that this volume will prove an indispensable part of every preachers library.~~ As a study of varieties of expository method in preaching it may be of great value to preachers. Nothing that has ever been pub- lished will equal it in this respect. It may also be a great aid for devotional uses. It will not fail moreover to leave a strong im- pression of the homiletic suggestiveness of the Bible, even of those portions of it which seem least fruitful and least practically useful. As to the rest its value is more than doubtful. The se- lections are from a great variety of sources. The nearly three hundred preachers or authors represented here are for the most part well known and favorably known. The selections from their * The Sermon Bible. Genesis to IL Samuel. New York: A. 0. Armstrong & Son, 714 Broadway. 1888. 148 Current Literature. [Feb. utterances are judiciously made and properly condensed. There are large lists of references also to works that are not quoted. The work cannot fail to give us a strong impression of the range and variety in modern preaching, of its superior Biblical quality, of its spirituality, its freshness, and its practical power. For this reason at least it will be welcomed by every enterprising student of preaching. L. 0. BRASTOW. The frontispiece of the MAGAZINE OF ART for February gives perhaps the best portrait of Mr. Gladstone that has ever been published. The original is Millais painting and this has been reproduced by the photogravure process with remarkable accu- racy. A few pages further on and we are given a paper on Mr. Gladstone and His Portraits, by T. Wemyss Reid, which is illustrated with capital engravings from various portraits and caricatures, a full page being devoted to the portrait made by WAts in 1858. This is followed by the first of a series of papers on The Isle of Arran ; after which comes a poem by Algernon Charles Swinburne written in the Scotch dialect and supposed to be a Jacobites farewell to his sweetheart in P715. Some Thoughts on our Art of To-Day, by Geo. Frederick Watts, are given, in which he takes occasion to speak pleasantly of a little work on art by Verestchagin, the Russian painter, whose paintings are now on exhibition in this country.Cassell & Co., New York, 35 cents a number, $3.50 a year in advance. THE ART AMATEUR for February gives two colored plates, a moonlight landscape, and the first of a series of fern designs for China decoration. The black-and-white designs include Easter decorationslilies and ecclesiastical designs for dorsel and ban- ners; a large four page design for a screen panel, the first of a series representing the seasons; designs for a plate (orchids), two salad-plates, a fish plate and a Royal Worcester vase, a striking double page wild rose design for a carved and perforated panel, and a pleasing tapestry decoration, after Boucher, The Foun- tain of Love. The frontispiece is a Head of a Creole. The practical articles relate to still life, flower, water color and tap- estry painting, Easter decoration and home adornment. Articles of particular interest are Hints from Japanese Homes, and Mr. Kunzs talk about jade. Price 35 cents a number, $4 a year. Montague Marks, Publisher, 23 Union Square, N. Y.

148 Current Literature. [Feb. utterances are judiciously made and properly condensed. There are large lists of references also to works that are not quoted. The work cannot fail to give us a strong impression of the range and variety in modern preaching, of its superior Biblical quality, of its spirituality, its freshness, and its practical power. For this reason at least it will be welcomed by every enterprising student of preaching. L. 0. BRASTOW. The frontispiece of the MAGAZINE OF ART for February gives perhaps the best portrait of Mr. Gladstone that has ever been published. The original is Millais painting and this has been reproduced by the photogravure process with remarkable accu- racy. A few pages further on and we are given a paper on Mr. Gladstone and His Portraits, by T. Wemyss Reid, which is illustrated with capital engravings from various portraits and caricatures, a full page being devoted to the portrait made by WAts in 1858. This is followed by the first of a series of papers on The Isle of Arran ; after which comes a poem by Algernon Charles Swinburne written in the Scotch dialect and supposed to be a Jacobites farewell to his sweetheart in P715. Some Thoughts on our Art of To-Day, by Geo. Frederick Watts, are given, in which he takes occasion to speak pleasantly of a little work on art by Verestchagin, the Russian painter, whose paintings are now on exhibition in this country.Cassell & Co., New York, 35 cents a number, $3.50 a year in advance. THE ART AMATEUR for February gives two colored plates, a moonlight landscape, and the first of a series of fern designs for China decoration. The black-and-white designs include Easter decorationslilies and ecclesiastical designs for dorsel and ban- ners; a large four page design for a screen panel, the first of a series representing the seasons; designs for a plate (orchids), two salad-plates, a fish plate and a Royal Worcester vase, a striking double page wild rose design for a carved and perforated panel, and a pleasing tapestry decoration, after Boucher, The Foun- tain of Love. The frontispiece is a Head of a Creole. The practical articles relate to still life, flower, water color and tap- estry painting, Easter decoration and home adornment. Articles of particular interest are Hints from Japanese Homes, and Mr. Kunzs talk about jade. Price 35 cents a number, $4 a year. Montague Marks, Publisher, 23 Union Square, N. Y.

148 Current Literature. [Feb. utterances are judiciously made and properly condensed. There are large lists of references also to works that are not quoted. The work cannot fail to give us a strong impression of the range and variety in modern preaching, of its superior Biblical quality, of its spirituality, its freshness, and its practical power. For this reason at least it will be welcomed by every enterprising student of preaching. L. 0. BRASTOW. The frontispiece of the MAGAZINE OF ART for February gives perhaps the best portrait of Mr. Gladstone that has ever been published. The original is Millais painting and this has been reproduced by the photogravure process with remarkable accu- racy. A few pages further on and we are given a paper on Mr. Gladstone and His Portraits, by T. Wemyss Reid, which is illustrated with capital engravings from various portraits and caricatures, a full page being devoted to the portrait made by WAts in 1858. This is followed by the first of a series of papers on The Isle of Arran ; after which comes a poem by Algernon Charles Swinburne written in the Scotch dialect and supposed to be a Jacobites farewell to his sweetheart in P715. Some Thoughts on our Art of To-Day, by Geo. Frederick Watts, are given, in which he takes occasion to speak pleasantly of a little work on art by Verestchagin, the Russian painter, whose paintings are now on exhibition in this country.Cassell & Co., New York, 35 cents a number, $3.50 a year in advance. THE ART AMATEUR for February gives two colored plates, a moonlight landscape, and the first of a series of fern designs for China decoration. The black-and-white designs include Easter decorationslilies and ecclesiastical designs for dorsel and ban- ners; a large four page design for a screen panel, the first of a series representing the seasons; designs for a plate (orchids), two salad-plates, a fish plate and a Royal Worcester vase, a striking double page wild rose design for a carved and perforated panel, and a pleasing tapestry decoration, after Boucher, The Foun- tain of Love. The frontispiece is a Head of a Creole. The practical articles relate to still life, flower, water color and tap- estry painting, Easter decoration and home adornment. Articles of particular interest are Hints from Japanese Homes, and Mr. Kunzs talk about jade. Price 35 cents a number, $4 a year. Montague Marks, Publisher, 23 Union Square, N. Y.

NEW ENGLANDER AND YALE REVIEW. No. CCXXVIII. MARCH, 1889. ARTICLE I. HOW A NEW ENGLAND FRONTIER TOWN GREW UP IN THE OLD COLONIAL TIMES. Colonicil iTi~ne8 on Buz2ctrd8 Bay. By WILLIAM ROOT BLISS. Boston: iloughton, Muffin & Co. 1888. l2mo. pp. 185. THE object of the -writer of the book whose title we have placed above has been to give the story of the settlement and growth of a New England town, in the old colonial times, with special reference to the social life of its inhabitants, in that age of homespun. The town is one for which the author evidently has a strong affection; and the book is one upon which he has bestowed the loving labor of years. We may add, also, that he has been so successful in what he has attempted that even those who have never seen the picturesque scenes which he de- scribesthe fine woodlands with soft brown silence carpeted, the rivers and ponds, the sedgy field brookswill read these voL. nv. 12 150 How a New England Town grew up. [March, daintily printed pages with interest, and learn to share with the author some of the feelings which have given him inspiration. The name of the town, however, we do not need to mention, as it is of little importance for the object which we have in view. We know nothing of it beyond what Mr. Bliss has told us, and we have been led to take it as the theme of the remarks which we wish to make, for the single reason that it was evi- dently one of the least considerable of the early New England towns. Its first settlers were very plain people nsed to a plaine countrie life & ye inocente trade of husbandrey and the soil which they tilled was abont as unpromising as any to be found between Cape Cod and the Hudson river. So it has seemed to us that the characteristics of the early New Eng- landers, and their way of doing thingstheir excellencies and especially their deficienciesmight be seen more clearly, and might be studied to better advantage, in the history of some such out-of-the-way community as this which grew np in ob- scurity on Buzzards Bay, than in the history of other towns which are better known, and which were settled by people of more consideration. It is very important that it should not be forgotten that the American Commonwealth, as Mr. Bryce has pictured it in his recent book, did not attain to its present condition without many serious struggles. There is danger that the eulogies on our ancestors which have been made by Fourth-of-July orators, and on anniversary occasions, have led many persons to suppose that all we now enjoy as a people was secured to us by the sim- ple landing on these shores of a few thousand Englishmen of exceptionally good character, who proceeded at once to unfold in a quiet and natural way certain advanced religious and politi- cal views which they had brought with them. On the contrary, the fact is that the average Englishman of the seventeenth century was a man of very coarse fibre, and that the early New England colonists were after all, in many particulars, not so far in advance of their countrymen whom they left at home as many persons suppose. There came over with them, also, or drifted in among them, a certain proportion of men of bad moral character, of men who were mere adventurers, of cranks, of inefficient people, who made trouble themselves, and whose 1889.] How a New England Town grew up. 151 descendants have never ceased to furnish inmates for our jails and poor-houses during all these years. The true explanation of the Americau Commonwealth of to-day is to be found in the fact that a large proportion of the early colonists had accepted the Bible as their rule of conduct, and, here in this wilderness, separated from England by three thousand miles of ocean, had an opportunity, unfettered by authority of any kind, to try the experiment of founding a State in accordance with the principles of that book which they accepted as the Word of God. As for the rest, those meneven the best of thembrought with them many of the erroneous viewspoliti- cal and religiouswhich were then accepted not only in Eng- land, but in all parts of the civilized world. But they were men of strong common senseserious minded and practical Englishmenwho were seeking with all earnestness to ascer- tain and to do the will of God. They were ready to learn by experience, and to adapt their theories to whatever new exigen- cies arose. The result was that graduallyand it was only graduallythe conception was gained of a government of the people, by the people, and for the people. But we will reserve what we have to say on this aspect of American history till we have reached the close of what we have to say of the book that Mr. Bliss has given us. The value of his book consists in the fact that he has pre- sented a pictnre of early colonial times, which is true to the life. He has had the discernment to see what were the short- comings of the men who laid the foundations of our institu- tions. We have already called attention to the fact that what he has written is all the more valuable for the reason that the town he describes was not at all an ideal New England town. In its history, therefore, these short-comings are the more ap- parent. We do not mean to intimate that the arithor has been unmindful of the excellencies of the people whom he describes, but he has not been afraid to put the dark shades into his pict- ure, when truth has demanded it. For this reason it is, that we ask our readers to follow us as we repeat in outline some parts of the story he has so charmingly told. Mr. Bliss informs us that after the war with King Philip had ended, and the territory which had belonged to that In- 152 How a New Lhgland Town grew up. [March, dian chief had been annexed to Plymouth Colony, the lands on the western shore of Buzzards Bay the lands of Sippican, as they were calledwere purchased by a company composed of some of the principal men of that colony. These lands were esteemed valuable for their fisheries, their pine wood- lands, their cedar and spruce swamps, and especially for rich meadows on the necks, which extended into the bay. The purchasers went to work at once to turn their property to good account. On March 10, 1679, they met at Joseph Burgs his house at Sandwitch, and selected five of their number to go to take a yew of the Lands and to determin where the house Lots shall be Layed out, directing to make the lots 40 ackors if the Land will Beare it. Then, to attract emigration, they declared that those that first settell and are Livers shall be allowed to make on the commons ten Barrells of tarr a peece for a yeare. The purchasers who did not become Livers were not to be alowed to make any Tarre of the pine knots or wood that is within the Limmits for the space of five years. To the east of these lands of Sippican, adjoining them, and nearer to Plymouth, was another tract of land at the head of the bay, known as the Agawame Plantation, which had been bought of the Indians by the Plymouth colony at a very early period in its history. This tract was sold by the Colony in 1682 to six Englishmen for two hundred and eighty pounds, current money, to obtain the means of building a meeting- house in Plymouth town. The purchasers met at once, divided their estate into six shares, laid .out six home lotts of sixty acres each, to build any hous or housen upon. They met again and laid out sixe tracts of meadow, divided the up- lands, and appointed four of their number to lay out con- venient publike & private high waies. When next they met, they declared thar selves contented and satisfid with what was don, and there set too thare handes in the smal bucke where all thes devisins ware first writen. The lands which were now offered for sale in these two plantations were not long left without occupants. The town of Plymouth, where the little baud of Pilgrims had estab- lished themselves with such difficulty sixty years before, had pros- pered. The children of the men and women who there fought 1889.] How a New England Town g~ew up. 153 so long with famine and disease, and had so courageously held on to the barren shore on which they first landed, had increased and multiplied, and had begun to find the town which their fathers had founded too small for their needs. That longing to push into the wilderness and make new homes for them- selves, which has become such a marked characteristic of their descendants, had already begun to be developed in them. So the purchasers of the lands of Sippican and Agawame were speedily made glad by the incoming of those who came to bea1s they had termed it Livers. We have already said that these people were a very plain people. It is not to be forgotten that their fathers had been plain people before them. There were a few able men in the Plymouth colonyBrewster, and Bradford, and Winslow, and Miles Standishbut the greater part of the inhabitants, though they were indeed the salt of the earth, did not compare with the people of the other New England colonies in enter- prise, in education, or in knowledge of affairs. It is true that the other colonies thought more highly of them than they did of the heterogeneous population that had collected around Roger Williams in Providence; but judging the Plymouth people by their own higher standards, they were disposed to look somewhat askance at them, as lax in the administration of their laws, careless of the education of their children, and even wanting in due care for the ordinances of religion. It is an interesting study to inquire how these very plain Anglo- Saxon farmers, of the first generation of native born Ameri- canswho had enjoyed few opportunities for mental culture, who knew little of what was going on in other parts of the world, and who cared for little beyond their immediate neigh- borhoodwere to thrive in the new homes which they were to make for themselves. The first thing to be noticed is the care and readiness with which these men arranged for the government of their little communities. There was for some time no town organization; but, in both Sippican and Agawame there existed a kind of dual government. The management of all those matters which affected proprietary rights was assumed by the proprie 154 Row a Hew England Town grew up. LMarch, tors, who exercised a supreme authority in entire separation from the body of the inhabitants. We can judge of their the- ory by what they did. In Sippican, the proprietors made laws to prevent the exportation of lmnber. They forbade strange Indians to hunt or catch deer within their limits. They made a decree to prohibit any person from cutting cedar, spruce, or pine, except he fairly demonstrate that he stands in need of it. They ordered a fine of five pounds to be paid by every Englishman and Indian who shall set on fire the woods in anny part of the Township, and neglect to put it out before they depart the Spott. They appropriated land for highways. In Agawame, following the custom of Teu- tonic farmers who felled wood in a common forest and grazed cattle in a common pasture, the proprietors allowed each one of their number to graze only thurtitoo nete catel and foner horses~~ or six sheepe instead of one Beast. They appointed an officer to watch the pastures, to see that they were equita- bly enjoyed, and to report if any man sent in more cattle than his proportion. Farmers who were not proprietors were al- lowed pasturage on unused rights if they brought to the watch- man a note or token to his sattisfaxion whose Rite they came upon. The proprietors also set apart lands for a public bun- ing place. They gave directions about the fisheries. Other matters which affected only the interests of the peo- ple at large were left to the actual settlers. In their informal meetings, the people of each of the two communities came among themselves to some sort of agreement or understanding as to what should be done for the common interest. But these agreements or understandings were always conditioned on the consent of the proprietors, whose prerogative appears to have been regarded like that of the King. The matters which caine up in these neighborhood gatherings respected, for instance, such practical things as how to deal with the wolves, wildcats, and foxes, which made havoc of the farmers sheep; and with crows, blackbirds, robins, and squirrels, that devastated the planted fields. But it is interesting to find that the thoughts of these peo- ple were not so exclusively taken up with the cares of their 1889.] How a New England Town grew up. 155 frontier life that they were unmindful of higher interests. It is to be kept in mind that this was not a New England corn-. munity of the most elevated type; and that for this reason, all that these men did is the more significant. So we call at- tention to the fact that, in each of the two plantations, among the very first things with which they concerned themselves was a suitable provision for both religion and education. In Sippi- can, when the proprietors met in April, 1680, to draw lots for homesteads and salt meadows, they appointed the first and second house-lots drawn, with two meadows, and two lots in the best of the woodland, for the minister & for the minis- trie. The people, too, on their part, offered to build a meet- ing-house. It was to be sit on the westerly Sid of the long bridg, and they did agree to pay for the meeting-house which was to be builded by a free-will offering of fifty pounds. Rights to build pews were sold by auction; the pews to be al of a haith and bult work manlike, and seats were to be placed nye the pulpit stairs for Antient parsons to sett in. No less than this would have satisfied what from the first seems to have been almost an instinct of all New Englanders; yet it must be confessed that, as a matter of fact, it was not till three years later that the Rev. Samuel Shiverick was pro- cured to preach the word of god to them at Scippican ; and not till seventeen years later, that a meeting-house was built. Six years more passed before a church was organized, when the Reverend Samuel Arnold wrote in the records, with great satisfaction: It hath pleased our gracious God to shine in this dark corner of this wilderness and visit this dark spot of ground with the dayspring from on high, through his tender mercy to settle a church according to the order of the Gospel, October 13, A. ID. 1703. Here another fact is to be noticed, significant both of the sense of justice which marked the people and especially of the readiness which early manifested itself everywhere in New England to throw away all views which they had brought from England which conflicted with the new condition of things. It appears that, when the church was organized, some of the people in Sippican were found to be no longer of the prevail- ing religious faith. Accordingly these persons protested 156 Row a New England Town grew up. [March, against being called on to pay the tax which was laid for the encouragement & soport of a minister. This protest was con- sided, and an abatement of the tax was made upon such in- habitantce as are of contrery judgement & now professed Quakers. As another illustration of the honorable spirit with which this little community of frontiersmen was disposed to act in all its dealings, we find that after the first apportionment, when it was proposed to Laye oute sum hie waye into the Neckes on the bay, and it was found that such a highway must of neseseti come over the southerd end of Samuel Bate his home lots which was yen much damig to him, each proprietor gave him as compensation his sevrel rite in two or three small peses of medo [meadow]. It is to be noticed also that the same spirit of justice was shown in their treatment of the Indians. They had purchased their lands from the Court, yet when they found that their title was disputed by some of the Indian sachems Charles, Manomet Peter, and Will Connet, as they were called by the Englishthe proprietors, after considering their claims, settled with them all to their full satisfaction. Will Connets claim was the largest. He professed to be lord paramount of all the territory bordering on the Weweantet and Woonkinco rivers to Plymouthes westerly tree at Agawaame, and did disclaime and defie the title of every these men called the pur- chasers of Sepecan. The proprietors satisfied him by paying him a pound sterling, a trucking cloth coat valued at ten shil- lings, and by making him a member of their company. His name was written upon the roll of shareholdersdescribed in the records of the Plymouth Court as Substanciall men that are prudent psons and of considerable estates. It is well to notice what was the effect of their action. This wild Indian Will Connetbecame a peaceable citizen, ready to recognize all the responsibilities of his new status. When the proprietors taxed themselves for building a grist-mill, he promised for him self and his brother John to give six barrells of tarr to wards sd mill. We have already stated that the proprietors of these plan- tations, in accordance with another of the instincts of New 1889.] Row a New England Town grew up. 15~T Englanders, expressed their intention of making provision for education. But even in Plymouth itself, their fathers had been accused of culpable negligence in the care of their schools; and perhaps it is not surprising thatas far as appears from this bookit was not till after twenty-six years had passed that the people chose mrs. jane mashell for to teach childered & youth to Reed & to writte. For her panes she was to have her dyet, and to receive twelve pounds. Her migratory school does not seem to have been what might be called a suc- cess, for it was not long before doubts arose about the sober- ness of her conversation, and three ungallant men, as Mr. Bliss calls them, requested to have theire protest entered for that they accounted she was not as the law directs. Having described the manner in which these two little com- munities came into existence, Mr. Bliss next proceeds to give a picture of the social life that existed in them for the first fifty years. It is to be remembered that they were more isolated from the rest of the world than any community at the present time in Idaho. The principal occupation of the people was the tillage of the soil, which, when fertilized with fish and sea weeds, produced abundant crops of corn, rye, wheat, oats, and flax. They also traded in peltries, fish, and timber. They gathered turpentine from the pine trees which abounded on every side. In each family, the labors of the day began before sunrise; and sons, daughters, and indentured servants all took part in them. They suspended work only for their meals, and ended it only when the candies were put out at early bed- time. The women did the housework, tended the hens, the geese, and the calves; scoured the brass warming-pans and pewter dishes; spun flax and wool yarn, and wove them into cloths from which the clothing and bedding of the family were made by their own hands; and if more was made than was needed at home, it was bartered away. In such a community there were no poor people. There was no reason that the larder of the humblest family among them should not be bountifully supplied with food, and they supplemented their tables with game from the forests, with water-fowl and shore- birds, which frequented the maritime parts of the plantation in 158 Row a New England Town grew up. [March, great numbers. Besides what food the sea liberally furnished, they had also choice from flesh of beef, mutton, venison, par- tridge, and wild turkey. The social life of the times receives still further illustration from the description which Mr. Bliss gives of the way in which the people dealt with each other in trade and barter. There was very little, if any ready money. Accounts were allowed to stand open for years before they were settled; and when at last the amounts had been carefully reckoned, the balance was adjusted with a promise to rectify thereafter any mistakes. To show how this was done we quote a few of the queer entries which Mr. Bliss has gathered from some of the old account books which he has examined. Reconed with Joseph blakmor and thare is due him one bushall of wheat and 12 bushalls of otes and 11 bushalls of inden corn and one shilling. Reconed with margret bates as Execter to har husband and ol acounts balenced A mistak in Reconing 6 shilling for my hos. Reconed with Ebnezer Swift and thare is a mistak of 2 quarts of maleses. Reconed with Ebnezer Luce and acounts balanced from the begin- ing of the world to the date here of. A certain farmer, we are also told, in payment of the charges of a tanner for the exercise of his mystery, threw in one dog to balance the account. Now it is not at all surprising that such a people, who were industrious in their habits, should soon begin to feel that the great object of life was to get out of their farms every farth- ing that they could be made to yield. It became the habit of their lives to squander nothing and to practice a rigid economy in all things. How close and shrewd they learned to be in their bargains appears from some additional entries quoted from that same old account book. February. Samuel bates to worck with me 6 mounths for 22 pounds and if he loos Any time to abate acordingly and If I se cause to have him make up the los of timme after he hath made his Salt hay he is to du it. 1889.] Row a New England Town g~ew up. 159 November 8 Ebnezer bessee to work for mee to 10 day of March at night with his own ax and I am to find him meet drink washing and loging And I am to give him the vallew of 10 pounds but not in mony and hee is to cut 2 cords of wood in a day when hee doth no other work, and I am to pay him one half in goods and the other in bills of credit and if I think he dont em his wages he is to go Away. January the 28 day Theophilus Wood hiered him self to mee for one Yeare for thirty-six pounds. An additional entry in this account with Theophulus Wood shows how the worthy laboring man fared when he was laid aside from work for a few days by fever and ague fits. The following charge was formally entered in the farmers book for time loost. April. Dr. to siknes the fever and ago 4 fites one weke and three the next. Just how soon the authorities of the Colony of Massachu- setts found it necessary to assume the responsibility of admin- istering some form of government over this region of Arcadian simplicity and happiness does not appear from the statements in the book from which we derive all our information. Appar- ently it was not long before Mr. Israel Fearing was commis- sioned as His Majestys Justice of the Peace : and it is interesting to see how he was regarded by his neighbors. We are told the people spoke of him as The Squire, and treated him with respect as the representative of our Sovereign Lord the King. He was not put in office because he was wise and learned in the law; but rather because he was one of the most sufficient persons dwelling, in the county, known to be loyal, of dignified deportment, and possessed of lands or tenements yielding a certain annual value. Mr. Bliss says: The colonial laws which he administered had been made by wise legislators, who intended that there should be neither traveling, labor, nor amusement on Sunday, but a solemn and decorous observance of the day by every- body, and a general attendance at the public services in the meeting-house; that there shoudd be no profane swearing, nor cursing of persons or creatures; no drunkenness, nor brawls; that debtors should pay their debts, and if a debtor could not 160 flow a New England Town grew up. [March7 pay with money a judgment obtained against liim, that he must pay it by service if the creditor required him to do so. If offenders did not pay the fines imposed upon them, he could place them in the stocks, or order them to be whipped. Per- sons who lived disorderly, misspending their precious time, he could send to the work-house, to the stocks, or to the whipping- post, at his discretion. He could break open doors where liquors were concealed to defraud His Majestys excise. He could issue hue-and-cries for runaway servants and thieves. There are instances on record in which a justice of the peace issued his warrant to arrest the town minister about whose orthodoxy there were distressing rumors, and required him to be examined upon matters of doctrine and faith. But a more pleasing function of his office was to marry those who came to him for marriage, bringing the town clerks certificate that their nuptial intentions had been proclaimed at three religious meet- ings in the parish during the preceding fortnight. We get however a somewhat more vivid impression of what one of ins Majestys Justices of the Peace really was, at this period of our colonial history, from reading some of the official accounts of what he actually did. May th 10 Day then Parsonly appeared Japhath washburn and acknowledged himself Gilty of a Breach of Sabbath In traveling From my hous onto Zaphanier Bumps on the 16 Day of april on a arond To Git Benjamin Benson to worck for him and he hath paid Ten Shillings as a Fine To me John Fearing Justis of peace. September th 5 Day personly appeared william Estes and acknowl- edged him Self Gilty of Racking hay on The First Day of the week or Lords Day and paid Fine Ten Shillings to me. But it was not only so-called misdemeanors such as these that came under his cognizance. All boys and girls who laughed during the time of worship were made to feel a snitable awe of this dignified public functionary. On the records of his court stand various entries like the one we transfer to our pages as a sample. Deborah Bergs hath paid me as a fine for Lafing in the Wareham meeting house on the Sabarth day In the time of Publick Devine Sar- vice By the hand of Ebnezer Brigs 5 Shillings. 1889.] How a New England Town grew up. 161 The account which Mr. Bliss gives of the proceedings at one of the Squires courts is so suggestive that we quote it in full. One November day . . . this dignitary dismounted in front of the inn and entered the bar-room. He laid aside his beaver hat and red camlet cloak trimmed with fox skins, and seated himself by the great fireplace to chat with his brother the landlord; when there entered a sailor from a sloop just arrived from Nantucket, who, after drinking a grog, became boisterous and finally profane. Whereupon the scene was changed. The bar-room was transformed into a court-room, and this audacious offender of the Kings peace was tried, con- demned, and punished according to colony law. The sentence which placed him in the stocks read as follows: At a cort held before John Fearing Esquire one of his majesties Justices of the peace at the House of Benjamin Fearing on the 11 of November Jonathan Wing marriner being Convicted for prefainly Swaring in the Preasence and hearing of said Justice Two prefain Oaths It is considered by said Justice that the said Jonathan pay a fine of Five Shillings for the first of said Oaths and one Shilling For the other to his majesty For the use of the Poor of Wareham or In Default thereof that the said Jonathan being a common sailor shall be sett in the Stocks an Hour and halfe. In such a primitive way as this, more than fifty years went quietly by, when at last the people of Sippican and Aga- wame were seized with the ambition of having a town government of their own. Even the most easterly of the two plantations was separated from the town of Plymouth, of which it was still a part, by fifteen miles of wilderness. It was pro- posed that the two communities should be united so as to form one town. We will not dwell on the preliminary steps that were taken, but we are told that Squire Fearing was induced to lobby the matter with the selectmen of Plymouth, and the result was so satisfactory, that after the meeting had adjourned he treated the selectmen at an expense of three shillings. The petition was then to be taken to the legislature at Boston, and the way this was done, and the journey, are described in a manner so picturesque that we give it here in full. Early in the morning of the 29th of May, 1738, his mare having been newly shod and carefully saddled, Israel Fearing 162 Row a New England Town grew up. [March, started on the journey to Boston. The road which he traveled was narrow and tortuousa lane through a forest, having rocks and quagmires and long reaches of sand, which made it almost impassable to wheels, if any there were, to be ventured upou it. Branches of large trees were stretched over it, so that it was unvisited by sunlight except at those places where it crossed the clearings on which a solitary husbandman had established his homestead, or where it followed the sandy shores of some of those picturesque ponds which feed the rivers emptying into Buzzards Bay. Occasionally a deer bounded across the path, and foxes were seen running into the thickets. The nimble mare, accustomed to such ways, carried her rider at a steady pace during the day, baiting at Scituate village, and reaching Roxbury Neck about five oclock in the afternoon, where a stop for a half hour was made at the St. George tavern. From this elevated site the traveler saw the steeples of Boston, its harbor lively with vessels, the Kings ships riding before the town, Cambridge and the shores of the mainland in the dis- tance. Having refreshed himself and the mare he trotted along the narrow way leading into the great town, on which the most prominent object attracting his attention was a gallows stand- ing at the gate. When he rode within he found in everything around him a wonderful contrast to the quiet and monotonous scenes which had always surrounded his life at Agawame. The streets were paved with cobble-stones, and were thronged with hack- ney-coaches, sedan-chairs, four-horse shays, and calashes, in some of which gaily dressed people were riding, the horses being driven by their negro slaves. Gentlemen on handsome saddle-horses paced by him, in comparison with whom he made a sorry figure. But he was reassured of his own manliness when he encountered a flock of sheep, and ox-carts just in from the country laden with fire-wood, fagots, and hay. He noticed with amazement the stately brick hoases and their pleasant gardens, in which pear-trees and peach-trees were blooming. In the Mall, gentlemen dressed in embroidered coats, satin waistcoats, silken hose, and full wigs, were taking an after-dinner stroll with ladies who were attired in bright silks and furbelowed scarfs, and adorned with artificial flowers and patches on their 1889.1 flow a Hew England [[own grew up. 163 cheeks. Boston was an active, thrifty, trading town; its shops, distilleries, wind-milk, and rope-walks were all agoing; and as he turned his mare into King Street and pulled up at the Bunch of Grapes tavern, which, being near to the Town House, was conveniently situated for the business on which he was bent, he probably felt that in such a wealthy and worldly place his simple errand would receive but little attention. At the shutting in of the evening, James Warren, an influential member of the legislature from Plymouth, came to his assist- ance. To him the petition was intrusted, and having paid him twenty shillings, Israel Fearing rode back to Agawame. The act of the legislature incorporating the new town was signed by Governor Belcher, July 10, 1739; and in less than a month a town meeting was called for the purpose of setting up the machinery of government. At this meeting, a town clarck was chosen for the year Insuing, who was to serve for nothing or, as it was expressed, without fees from ye Town. Mr. Bliss says of this important officer, that he did not always write the records in a scholarly style, nor in a read- able hand. He was frugal minded also. The closely written lines, running zig-zag like a rail fence across the pages, reveal a desire to be saving of the book; and the formation of his words shows that no extravagances could be allowed in the use of the alphabet. In fact, the book testifies that one of the qualifications of candidates for this office was an entire want of skill to write the English language correctly. A treasurer was also chosen, and it was voted: he is to serve the Town for Luve and good will. A Clark of the markit was appointed, who was to affix the towns seal to all wates and mesuers found to be true according to the standards sent out of England in the reign of William and Mary. Fence viewers were elected, and inspectors of highways and bridges; hog-reeves, and tything-men; a military clerk, also, who four times a year was to list all persons required by law to bear arms and attend musters; a guager; a cattle pound keeper; and all the other public functionaries that a New England town deems to be necessary for the proper ordering of its affairs. As for the office of constable, there appears to have been a diffi 164 flow a New England [[own grew up. [March, culty in finding any person who would accept it. On one occa- sion six men were elected one after another, who each in turn refused to qualify. A fine was therefore imposed on any one who should be elected and did not take the oath prescribed. In 1752, Butler Wing being chosen constable, refused to serve; whereupon he was prosecuted, and gave his promissory note for the amount of the fine. He asked repeatedly to be ex- cused from the debt, but it was voted that the town would not a Bate mr. Butler Wing any part of the money that he gave a note for for his Refusing to Sarve in the office of Con- stable when chosen by the Town in ye year 1752. The sequel of the matter appears in the treasurers records of 1756, viz: I have Reseved a fine paid by Butler Wing for not Sarving Constable 2 pounds 14 shillings. But of all the town officers, the Selectmen were chief. There were three of these chosen annually to take charge of prudential affairs, under which title were included all the multifarious matters which affected the interests of the town. Mr. Bliss says that they held their sessions at the tavern, where they usually sat the day out, and were served with victuals and grog at the towns cost, and were regarded by their host with the respect due to servants of the King. The organization of the town having been thus described, Mr. Bliss takes up the town meetings, and gives copious extracts from the records of what was done in them. Many of these are very suggestive. Some of the measures discussed were medical, as not to have Small Pox set up by Inocula- tion ; some were convivial, as To pay Joshua Gibbs for two bowls of Grog drunk while on the towns service. Some were pathetic, as voted for makeing a Coffen for Alice Reed ten shillingsfor her Winding Sheat three and four pence for digging her grave three shillings. The student of history will be disposed to linger over these records, but our space will only allow us to refer to the action of the town in a single case which will not fail to awaken a sad interest in all who read it. It relates to a family of those poor, ignorant, and supersti- tious peasant-prisoners from Acadia, kin of Evangeline and Gabriel Larjeuuesse, who were billeted upon the towns of Massachusetts by order of the royal Governor and Council. 1889.1 flow a New England Town grew up. 165 The order in the original phraseology runs as follows: To remove John Pelerine Wife and Children, supposed to be Five in Number, a Family of French Neutrals, to the Town of and that the Select Men of the Town of be and hereby are directed to receive them and provide for them. The town of course was obliged to comply, and so voted, in 1757, to pay Six Shillings to Sam Savery for his Trouble and care of John Pennerine. The consciousness of growing importance which had thus led the inhabitants of Sippican and Agawame to set up a town government could hardly fail to reveal itself in other ways; and, as we have already said, it is the special value of this book that Mr. Bliss has enabled us to follow the steps by which institutions of every kind were gradually developed in this very remote New England town. He traces, in the first place, what was done by the people for their religions interests. He tells us that, according to the laws of the Province of Mas- sachusetts, it had now become their duty, as inhabitants of a town, to provide themselves with an able, learned, and ortho- dox minister of good conversation, to dispense the Word of God unto them. Till this time, they seem to have been sadly deficient in what was everywhere considered in New England to be the most important of religious privileges, the ministrations of a resident clergyman. It is true that when the two plantations were first occupied by the settlers, they had set apart land, in accordance with their instincts as descendants of the Pilgrim Fathers, for the support of the ministry, and they had taken measures for the building a meeting-house. But,asamatterof fact, for a good part of the time that had intervened, they had been dependent on the occasional services of Mr. Rouland Cotton, the minister of Sandwich town ten miles to the eastward, who at certain times rode over to preach. He was paid for this itinerant service by the mowing and pasturage of the ministry meadow. Yet we have no doubt that, during all the years of the half-century before the formal organization of the town, Christian families had been numerous, and many devout men and women had been built up in the faith by the occasional voL. flY. 13 166 [March, flow a New England Town grew up. ministrations of Mr. Cotton, and of other ministers. But, as compared with the average New England town, it is evident that there had been a great lack of religions instrnction. Now, however, arrangements were at once made with the Rev. Rowland Thacher to come and make his abode among them as their settled pastcr. His ordination took place December 26, 1739, when the treatment he was to receive from the people of his charge throngh his long pastorate was in no doubtful fashion f ore- shadowed. The master of ceremonies on that occasion was explicitly instructed to provide an entertainment not accord- ing to the cnstom of Taverns Selling of Victuals but as shall be Judged Reasonable by the People. Perhaps this was no more than was to be expected of a community of frugal hus- bandmen and seafaring men who made their small gains by small savings. Bnt it was not long before the salary which was agreed upon was in arrears, and thenceforward it was to be a continually recurring question in all town meetings, causing disagreeable discussions, how the money was to be raised. Mr. Bliss tells us that there was a colony law which declared that if a town neglected for six months to make suitable provision for its minister, the Court of Quarter Sessions shall order a competent allowance for him out of the estate and ability of the people. So the town was reminded of this, and warned to assemble, and to Cum to Sum a Greement with Mr. Thacher that may Be to his Satisfaction as to ye Support that he ought to have from the town that thear may Be return maid to ye General Cort. In consequence of this warning, a committee was chosen to treat with him consearning his Salery to know how much money would content him; and the record says that he came in town-meeting and thear said he Declined saying anything in that affare a decision which showed the honorable character of the man. We shall not follow this story further. The experience which is here described is an experience which thousands of devoted ministers in the waste places of New England, and out of New England, have gone through manfully and with- out complaint; and it is to the self-sacrificing labors of such men we owe the prosperity of our churches to-day. 1889.] How a New England Town grew up. 167 As it may assist those who live in happier times to under- stand more fully the nature of some of the discouragements referred to, we will transfer to our pages the description which is given of the closing days of Mr. Thachers life, after more than thirty years of service, with his salary always in arrears. Mr. Bliss says: This condition of things continuing year after year made it necessary, in October, 1771, for the selectmen to issue a warrant for a town meeting, in which the people were warned to agree with Mr. Thacher as he Is Not Satisfied with ye Poorness of his former Payment what Sum he shall Have yearly and what time in ye year it shall be Paid him and Likewise wheather ye town will allow any Interest for what is behind Last years Sallary. It was the old story told over again. His promised salary never promptly paid, he tilled the soil for a living as well as the souls of the parish, and found his only recreation in walks about the sandy Zion. For such an humble laborer there were no luxuries, and no vacations except to exchange for a Sunday with the minister of a neigh- boring town. So Parson Thacher lived in his parish, and died there in 1774. During his fatal illness the town meeting dis- cussed his poor financial condition, and voted not to allow him anything for the year past more than his stated salery. But he was soon to be free from the tyranny of town meetings. Twelve days after this vote he entered into his rest, leaving a good savor of godilyness behind him; his wife having gone during the previous year. Seven months after he was dead the town chose a committee to settle with his eldest son relative to his Hond Fathers Sallery the last year which was behind. Whether the son ever received the arrears of money due to his honored father, no one now knoweth ! This all seems very mean; and yet, in any proper estimate of the religious character of these people, it should be understood that, after all, religion filled a very large space in their minds. Everywhere in New England it was a common thing for fain-. ilies to go regularly ten or fifteen miles, on Sunday, to meet- ing. Mr. Bliss tells us that in this very town everybody went to the Sunday services, whether living near or far off. The pews in the meeting-house were always so full that some of the people had to bring chairs, which they placed wherever 168 How a New England Town grew up. [March, there was an open space on the & or; and this was done to snch an extent, and proved snch an annoyance to the pew- owners, the aristocracy of the place, that in 1757 they got an order from the town to clear the Alleys of the meeting lions, of chairs and all other Incumbrances. Mr. Bliss adds: Whether the ousted worshipers stood during the services thereafter, or seated themselves on doorsteps and window sills, the records say not. It should be understood also that, according to the laws of the province, Sabbath time began at the going-down of Saturdays sun. In some places it was held that it continued even through the evening of Sunday. Mr. Bliss says: Every- where, on Saturday evening, the usual labors of the household were suspended; and when Sunday dawned, preparations were made to go to the meeting-house. Then traveling and walking a-fieldexcept in going to meeting or in returningwas forbidden; and traveling was not only passing from one town to another. It was, also, passing from house to house in the town. Here also it may be mentioned that one of the most interest- ing and valuable chapters in the book has for its title A Sunday morning in [June] 1771. We can only refer to this chapter, which presents what is really a beautiful picture of the aspect of things on the Sabbath, in that old meeting- house during the services. No son of New England will fail to recognize the truthfulness of the description. The explanation, then, of this mean treatment of Mr. Thacher, of which we have spoken, is not to be found in any want of interest in religion. The sermons that were heard, and the doctrines of the Christian faith, always formed one of the most frequent subjects of conversation. But there was then every- where a strong reluctance to pay out money for any purpose whatever; and the reluctance which these rude and uneducated farmers manifested to pay out money for the support of their religious institutions was something perhaps unavoidable, aud to be expected. There was a still greater reluctance to comply with the colony law respecting education. The law, however, was mm 1889.] flow a New England Town grew up. 169 perative; so a warrant was in due time posted on the meeting house door, summoning a meeting To know the Towns Mind, whether they are for having a School Master or Mistress. The people accordingly came together, and voted to have a School Mistress for six months, and Jedediah Wing to be the man to provide her in each half of the Town. But Mr. Bliss is very doubtful whether Jedediah Wing did as he was directed, for he says that he can find no mention of any engagement of a schoolmistress in the town records. The fact is that, in those days, in the opinion of the rural population of New England, schools were an unnecessary expense. Mr. Bliss says: Oftentimes the formalities of town meetings, by which it was ordered to set up a school this year, had no other intent than to show an outward compliance with the unpopular school laws of the province. Whenever the people could contrive a way by which the expenses of a school could be saved, there would be no school during that year. And when, on account of this neglect to observe the school laws, the town was presented by the grand jury of the county, it was customary to depute the most influential townsman to go and answer the presentment by such excuses as could be made. A single quotation from the town records of 1748 sets the situation before us in a way that can be easily understood: Decon Elles says he had discerst mr William IRayment to know whether he would Sarve the town as a Scoolmaster and he Inclined to Sarve the town if the town will allow him Eightey Pounds a year old teener and ye modarater Put It to vote whether ye town would Imploy ye sd Raymond In the affare In Keeping Scool at the aforesd tearms and the vote Past In ye Negative. On this rejection of the deacons candidate, Samuel Savery was chosen to Bee the man to Git a Sutable man, and to report what tarmes such a man would sarve the town for. In January, 1749, he reported that William Ray- ment had reduced his price, and could be had to keep scool half a yeare for thirty-nine pounds old teener. The modera- tor, so says the record, Put to vote whether the Town would have sd Rayment to keep scool on ye tarmes offerd or not and the Vote Past in the Negative. Mr. Bliss also says: The frugal mind of the colonial farmer 170 flow a New England Tc~wn grew up. [March, reckoned the schoolmaster as a day-laborer, and the desire was to hire him at as low a price, and to spread his labors over as large a territory, as possible. Each section of the town had his services during two or three months of the year, when the scholars were taught to read, to write, to cipher, and nothing more. He was paid sometimes in money and sometimes in merchandise, and his diet was thrown in. There was no standard by which to test his skill as a teacher, bnt the one generally esteemed the most skillful was he whose price was the lowest, even if he were the chief of blockheads. His official seat was a great chair, behind a table or desk on which he made a display of birch rods. There he announced his laws whose penalties were floggings; and there he frowned upon the youngsters whose roguish pranks kept him so actively occu- pied that the flag bottom of the chair needed frequent repair- ing. Paid ten shillings, says another Massachusetts town in 1747, for bottoming the Scoole Hous Cheer. The school- house was usually a small unpainted building standing by the roadside like a ragged beggar sunning. It contained a large fireplace, for whose fires the childrens parents provided wood. Its square room was furnished with rough benches, made smoother and glossier every year by the friction of the woolen frocks and leathern breeches of restless pupils to whom school- ing was a bore. We will now turn to the social life of the times, for there is no part of the book more full or satisfactory than what is said on this subject. Mr. Bliss tells us that, during the fifty years that preceded the Revolution, the farmhouses were low, rectangular, built around a large square central chimney. Beneath them were spacious cellars for the storage of various products of the farm and other household sup- plies, with which the thrifty farmer was abundantly pro- vided. Near, or connected with the dwellings were barns, cart-sheds, corn-cribs, and wood-piles. A picket feuce, or a rough stone wall, separated the highway from the front door, and a straight path divided the turf between. The well-to-do farmer kept a horse and shay, but it was only for hire and to carry the women folks to meeting. To 1889.] How a hew England Town grew up. 171 him time was not money, and if lie must go to a neighboring town he preferred to walk the distance rather than devote the establishment to his own use for the journey, except on unusual occasions. Fanning tools were wrought on the anvil of the village blacksmith, and so were the plowshare and the iron straps binding it to the mold-board. Clothing material was made on the farms. On the kitchen hearth stood dye tubs in which fleeces were colored red and blue. The industrious wife and her daughters were skilled in carding the wool, spinning it into yarns, and weaving the yarns into cloths, which, after passing through the fulling-mill, were made into clothing for the farRily. They also made fine linen from flax grown in their own fields. The shoes of the family were also a home product. rndes sent to a tannery remained in the vats a year, the tanner taking one half of them for his work; when the leather was sent to the house, a shoemaker was summoned, who made and repaired for every member of the family shoes enough to last a year, taking in payment for his labor various products of the farm. In those days families stayed at home; and children were taught to work as soon as they were taught anything. Often they grew to be men and women before they had crossed the boundaries of the town. Sometimes, however, a daughter found a husband in a neighboring town, or a son hankered after the sea, and trudged afoot to New Bedford to join a whaling ship and pursue his sea-dreams beyond Cape Horn. Intemperate drinking was at this time not an unusual thing. Ministers, as well as parishioners, drank rum moderately, or otherwise. At the stores it was sold for two shillings and three pence the gallon, and a decanter of it was at hand in the living-room of every dwelling-house. At an ordination, a wedding, a funeral, a house-raising, a launching, a husking, it was freely offered. If two men went to the salt meadows to mow, or into the woods to fell trees, they carried a pint of rum as a matter of course. Although farm laborers worked from sunrise to sunset, if a job was to be done after the days work was over, a sufficient compensation to the men was an invitation to Come in and take a grog! During the haying eason it was a custom of the farmer to go to the meadows at 172 How a New England Town~ grew up. [March, eleven oclock in the forenoon and at fonr oclock in the afternoon, carrying a tumbler and a decanter of rum for the refreshment of his laborers. Annually, in April, the governors fast-day was observed by going to the meeting-house to listen to a long sermon; and in November Thanksgiving day was observed by a similar service, followed by the cheer of an ample dinner at home, for which preparations had been going on for a long time. But Easter and Christmas were unknown. In the opinion of fathers and mothers, any special observance of Christmas day would have been considered a deference to the Pope of Rome. As for what may be called the more general social life, Mr. Bliss says: There were frolicsome assemblies for hnsking corn and paring apples; there were afternoon quilting-bees, and evenings enlivened by romping games,