,, i~- ~~d NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW. No. CCXXXII. JULY, 1871. ART. I. FORMS OF MINORITY REPRESENTATION. IT is not proposed to discuss in this place the principle of minority representation. In some form or other that principle is recognized in all governments which are called free, although, it must be confessed, nowhere to its fullest extent. The admission of opposition members into any legislative assembly is a partial but practical acknowledgment of its justice. In its commonest form minority representation is nothing more than a concession of sectional rights. Each State is assigned a certain number of representatives in Congress, and the States again divide themselves into single districts. Nothing is more common than for one or more congressmen to be elected from a State which is, on a general vote, opposed to them in politics. This division and subdivision are carried down to the arbitrary division of a city into wards, each entitled to elect certain officers. The purpose of the whole system is to grant the right of representation to minorities, be they parties or local sections of the entire constituency, in propor- tion to their numbers. The rule that the majority should gov- ern, if carried out relentlessly in the election of representatives, would obliterate all election district lines and lead to a general vote of the whole body of the people for the whole legislative assembly. Such assemblies would then be entirely composed VOL. CXIII. NO. 232. 1 [July, 2 Forms of Minorit3/ Representatwn. of members of one party, and would carry out the wishes of the majority, without interference from an opposition. But the usual form of minority representation has been found faulty in more ways than one. The arts of the politician are equal to an almost complete neutralization ~of the power to accomplish what was intended by the adoption of the district system. What is known as gerr~rmandering enables the ma- jority to arrange districts in such a way as to throw the control of an undue proportion of those districts into its own hands. There is one county in Maine entitled to thirteen representa- tives in the Legislature, which has been so districted that, although more than one third of the voters are Democrats, there is but one district in the county which is likely to be carHed by the Democrats, except by accident or in time of a political revolution. The consummate art of such gerrymandering is the more apparent when it is added that the districts are in every case made up of adjoining towns, are of nearly equal size, and no glaring injustice can be alleged except in the result accom- plished. Nor is it to be expected that, under our present system, this method of forming districts will be bettered. It is the necessity of every party to perpetuate its power; and as long as the simple expedient of skilful districting will accom- plish the object, and the appearance of fairness can be pre- served, the true purpose of the district system will not be met. Again, the practice of division and local representation neces- sarily diminishes the range of selection of candidates. It is quite common to find the men fittest for the assembly to be chosen congregated in one district, while several other adjoin- ing districts are quite bare of suitable candidates. It has been frequently remarked that the average ability of the State Senate of Massachusetts ~has decreased since the adoption of the single district system. Not to discuss whether the fact is more than a coincidence, it may be remarked that the tendency of the finer division is certainly to circumscribe the power of choice, and to give an opportunity for the election of less competent representatives. This difficulty is easily met by repealing all laws requiring representatives to be residents of the district for which they are chosen, and by inducing the voters to esti- mate at its true value the local pride that has been the basis 1871.] Forms of 1J1inorit~~ Representation. 8 of all such laws. In the several systems proposed as substi- tutes for the existing methods, the obliteration of district lines, or a vast enlargement of the boundaries of districts, and the abandonment of local representation, constitute a prime condi- tion for their success. The alleged failure of the district system, and the apparent unfairness to minorities which it involves, have led thinkers in this country, and to a still greater extent in Europe, to cast about for a new plan which shall both do greater justice to the several factions in a constituency and secure a higher order of talents in the representatives. The soundness of the objections to the present system, and the reasonableness of the cry against the tyranny of majorities, have been already discussed.* We therefore propose now simply to examine, in the light of ex- perience, the several substitutes put forward so confidently by their supporters, in order to ascertain whether any one of them has advantages so great that we can afford to adopt it into our political system. The problem to be solved in creating a new system to secure due representation to two or more parties or classes of opinion is a difficult one. Such a system should not be much less simple and easy of comprehension than that which it supplants. It must abolish all district lines or make the districts so large as to give a greatly increased range of selection. It must be flexible enough to adapt itself to large and small districts alike. Political managers must be deprived of power to defeat its purpose, as they have succeeded in doing with the district sys- tem. It must not, under the guise of minority representation, introduce miiiority government. The several plans proposed may be classed under three general heads: (1.) The limited vote; (2.) The cumulative vote; and (3.) The single vote. To the first class belong all plans which allow the elector to vote for a fixed number of persons less than the whole number to be chosen; to the second, all plans which give him a certain number~ of votes to distribute as he pleases; to the third, all plans which allow each vote to count for only one of several persons on the ballot, although more than one are to be chosen. * North American Review, Vol. CIV., 1867, p. 205. [July, 4 Forms of Minority Representation. The limited vote has been adopted for use in this country and in Europe, in several forms. Two members of the board of supervisors of New York county are chosen each year. The law provides that no person shall vote for more than one can- didate. He who receives a majority is elected, and the next highest candidate is appointed supervisor. This plan, which was intended to divide representation between the two parties, worked well for several years. A non-partisan body was secured, the Democratic candidate being always elected and the Republican appointed. But it was not minority represen- tation. The minority was as strong in the board as the ma- jority. At last the keen New York politicians scented out a way to defeat the intent of the law, while keeping to its letter. The Democrats outnumbered the Republicans in the city by more than two to one. An arrangement was made by which the Democrats in certain wards should vote for A, and those in others for B. A had the largest number, and was elected; B stood next, and was appointed; while poor C, the Republican candidate, was left out altogether. Since that brilliant dis- covery the Republicans, numbering nearly a third of the votes of the city, have been unable to elect a supervisor. A rather better opportunity to carry out this plan was furnished by the elections to the late Constitutional Convention of New York. Twenty members were to be chosen from the State at large, and no elector was to vote for more than ten. The State was very closely divided in politics, anl the inevitable result was the choice of ten of each party. This was also equality of representation to the majority and the minority, but no great injustice was done, because the parties were nearly equal in strength. Its chief advantage was that which invariably flows from having large districts. The twenty members chosen at large ranked among the very ablest in the convention. A modification of the same plan is in use in New York in the election of judges according to the new judicial article framed by that convention, the fragment of its work which escaped destruction at the hands of the voters, and is also employed in various localities in the selection of supervisors and in- spectors of elections. In Europe we find two modifications of this principle, unlike 1871.] Forms of Minority Representation. 5 each other and unlike the forms which have been put in prac- tice in this country. The first to be noticed is that which was applied in England by the last parliamentary Reform Bill to what are known as three-cornered constituencies, boroughs entitled to elect three members. The limited vote was applied to such constituencies by forbidding any elector to vote for more than two members. It is not exceeding the truth to say of this plan that it entirely failed. It was clumsy, it was arbitrary, and it did not in all cases secure representation to the minority. It assumed that the power of the majority would be tQ that of the minority in the proportion of two to one. If the politicians did not attempt to thwart the purpose of Parliament in insert- ing this clause, a majority consisting of nine thousand voters in a body of ten thousand would elect two members, and a minority of one thousand would choose the third. The pro- portion must be the same if the majority consisted of fifty-five hundred and the minority of forty-five hundred. There could be very few cases where absolute justice would be done, and, good or bad, there was absolute injustice in applying to a dozen or fewer constituencies a system of minority representation which was enforced nowhere else. It was but a party trick of the Tories, and the Liberals easily found a way to circumvent it. The instancQ of the Birmingham election is to the point. The Liberals believed themselves to have two thirds of all the votes at their command, and they reasoned correctly, that, if each man of their party could be instructed for which two candi- dates to vote, they could carry all three members. Thus in one district all Liberals would vote for Messrs. Muntz and Dixon, in another for Messrs. Dixon and Bright, in a third for Messrs. Bright and Mnntz. The result met their ex- pectations. They elected all their candidates. There was one curious fact about the election which shows the danger of this method of defeating the purpose of Parliament. John Bright was the most popular of all the candidates. So eager was every Liberal in Birmingham to vote for him, that it was with great difficulty that the arrangement was carried out in those districts where he was not to be brought to the poll. It is easy to see that the refusal of a few voters to obey instructions might have lost two members to the Liberals, and thus we 6 Forms of Minoritil Bepre8entation. [July, should have had the strange result of a professed system of minority representation giving double representation to a mi- nority of less than one third. The effort, of the Liberals to carry all the members was perfectly legitimate. The very theory of the advocates of the principle is to give to each class in the community a power in the legislature proportioned to its numbers. It is a perversion of the principle if less than one third of the electors can elect one third of the members, and a far more dangerous result than for a majority to elect the whole list. No arrangement of the kind practised at Birming- ham could be successful if the majority did not consist of at least two thirds of the voters. But this form of the limited vote having been tried and failed, it is not likely to be put in practice anywhere else. The only remaining modification of the limited vote is what is called the Geneva liste libre, or free list, and it differs essen- tially from any yet mentioned; indeed, the differences are so great that it might be classed almost as properly with single-vote systems. It is somewhat singular that this sys- tem is of American origin, having been first proposed by Mr. Thomas Gilpin, in a pamphlet published in Philadelphia in 1844. It was probably the first attempt to solve the prob- lem now before us. Considered simply as a systexn of minori- ty representation, it may claim to combine simplicity and fair- ness more perfectly than any other. As we shall see hereafter, it is precisely the form which an altogether different plan will assume in the not improbable contingency that the politicians attempt to bend it to their own purposes. The several parties prepare a full list of candidates equal to the whole number to be chosen. Each voter casts the whole ballot. The whole number of ballots having been ascertained, it is divided by the number of places to be filled, and each ticket is entitled to these places in proportion to the number of ballots it is found to have received. Thus, suppose the State of New York to have voted for her thirty-one representatives in Congress on this system in 1870, and suppose also that Tammany, Mozart, and the two wings of the Republican party were each in the field with a full ticket of thirty-one candidates. Tammany we will say cast 310,000 votes; Mozart, 89,000; the Radical Repub 1871.] Forms of Minority Representation. licans, 183,000; and the Conservative Republicans, 183,000. By the free-list method thirteen representatives are elected by Tammany, four by Mozart, seven by the Radical, and seven by the Conservative Republicans. A more accurate division would have given to Tammany twelve, and to Mozart three; but each of these wings having larger fractions remaining after assign- ing them the quota to which they are absolutely entitled, they take the two additional members. The lists, have been arranged by the parties in the order of their preference, and the successful candidates are taken from the head of the list. Under the district and caucus systems combined, it has hap- pened that a fusion of the two wings of the Democrats have carried but fifteen representatives, and the Republicans, who are in a minority of no less than thirty-three thousand votes, have obtained sixteen representatives in the present Congress. With an arrangement of the list according to preference, and with that preference accorded to the best men in the party, added to a due enlargement of voting districts, we should at- tain under this system not only an approach to absolute accu- racy in apportioning representatives among two or more par- ties, but the best promise of pure and able legislatures. But unfortunately, while the free-list system has the advantage of being wellnigh perfect as a machine for securing proportion- ate representation, it has some faults not to be overlooked. It does away completely with the individuality of the vote. How- ever bad a party nomination may be under the existing system, the electors have an unfailing remedy in the bolt. The free- list method of voting necessarily recognizes parties. The regu- lar ticket is legitimized. The working of the plan in this coun- try might be predicted at the start. The caucus would put at the head of the ticket the favorite of the ring, if a ring ex- isted within the party. Lower down would be found the names relied upon to give the ticket strength with the best elements of the party. It would then become every voters duty to vote the regular ticket ; because the success of the first- named, or ring, candidates being assured, the more votes that were given to the ticket as a whole the further into the list of respectable names would the number of elected candi- dates go. Scratching could effect nothing in the way of 8 Forms of ]JIinorit~, Representation. [July, defeating the ring candidates, and the only result would be that the mutilated ballots would be thrown aside as scattering, and wholly lost. Even a thoroughly organized bolt would in many cases secure the election of fewer of the better class than would a blind adherence to the regular nominations; because in apportioning the elections, two fractions of the quota would be lost, where only one would be lost if the party was united. An illustration will show how this might happen. In a con- stituency of twelve thousand voters there are seven deputies to be elected. The quota is therefore 1,714. The stronger p~irty has a majority of 200, the division being 6,100 and 5,900. Each party would be manifestly entitled to three rep.. resentatives, and the majority, having the larger fraction, takes the seventh member. The candidates of the majority are A, B, C, ID, E, F, and G, and of the minority II, I, K, L, M, N, and 0. The seven who are elected in this case are A, B, C, ID,H, I, and K. We will suppose, however, that the ring has put A and B at the head of the ticket, and that a bolt is or- ganized to defeat them. The dissatisfied party commands at the election anywhere from 1,950 to 2,450 votes. It has put up as candidates C, B, E, P, R, 5, and T. At any point between the supposed limits, 1,950 to 2,450, it can elect but one of its candidates, C. The regular party, having lost so large a num- ber of its supporters, can elect but two members, A and B, the favorites of the ring. Supposing that the bolt carries 2,200 votes, 3,900 are left to the regular ticket. This gives it two members with a remainder of 472, the bolt gets one member with a remainder of 486, and the minority, having already three members, and a remainder of 758, takes the seventh member. By this means the ring has got all it wished in the election of A and B, the bolters have only chosen C, when by following the regular ticket they might have had ID also, and the minor- ity controls the delegation. We surely need put no longer whip into the hands of political managers in this country than they already hold over us. At the same time it is to be said, that, while the free list rivets upon us the chains of party, that is practically the only evil of the present system which it aggravates. Its simplicity and the general fairness of the probable results recommend it more strongly to our serious 18T1.] Form8 of kflnority I? epre8entation. consideration than any other of the numerous substitutes pro- posed for our present method. The cumulative vote has attained a greater popularity in this country than any other method of bringing about the reform proposed. Ex-Senator Buckalew, of Pennsylvania, has, made it his special hobby to secure the adoption of a representative reform based upon the cumulative vote, but while in the Senate he made no other progress than to procure the insertion of a re- port on the subject in the Appendix of the Congressional Globe. Since his retirement from national politics he has been success- ful in causing the adoption of the principle in certain classes of municipal election in Pennsylvania. The reports of the re~ sults are generally favorable, but no particulars are furnished. On the strength of the theoretical virtues of the principle of cumulative voting, the late Constitutional Convention of Illinois inserted a clause applying it to all elections of representatives to the Legislature hereafter, and the people have made it a part of the Constitution. The State is divided into districts, each entitled to elect three members. The voters are permitted to distribute their three votes as they please, giving all three to one candidate, one to each of three, or two to one candidate, and the third to a second. Passing over for the moment the consideration of this principle as applied to the lower house of the flhinois Legislature, let us examine it in its practical work- ing on a scale hardly less extensive, and under conditions much more varied. The recent act of Parliament known as the Education Act provided conditionally for the establishment of school boards in all the larger towns of England. It contained spec.ial pro- visions in relation to the election of the school board for Lon- don. The several metropolitan boroughs became districts for the choice of members in precisely the same way as the States of the Union would constitute districts for the election of con- gressmen, if each State chose all its members by general ticket. It was enacted that the ballot should be used in the elections in all the boroughs except the city, and the terms of the act were susceptible of an interpretation which permitted women householders, not only to vote, but to be eligible as members. There were, therefore, in this election all the conditions for a 10 Forms of Minority Representation. [July, fair trial of the cumulative vote. The complication of woman suiThage and the ballot with the trial of this system really rather conduced to the fairness of the experiment than de- tracted from it. The interest in the working of the ballot, and the. novelty of seeing women voting and voted for by the side of men, attracted so much attention that the cumulative vote was left to its natural working. It is doubtful whether more favorable circumstances could have been devised for put- ting it to a preliminary test. That the use of the ballot at least did not interfere with the working of the system is proved by the fact that the result in the city borough, which voted viva voce, enforces every lesson derivable from an ex- amination of the returns from the boroughs where voting- papers were employed. We. may say, without any qualification, that the result every- where proved the system to satisfy completely the first require- ment of a substitute for our present methods. It was so simple that the dullest voter could comprehend it. To be sure the elec- tors had some assistance in the official ballot that was furnished. Candidates were proposed according to a well-ordered method,* and only those thus regularly proposed were eligible. The names were all printed on a ballot which was handed to each voter, and all that was left for him to do was to strike off the names of those for whom he did not wish to vote, and write opposite to those remaining the number of votes lie wished to give to each. But notwithstanding this aid, it is surprising to find that not more than one vote in a hundred, in a constit- uency not remarkable for the diffusion of education, was thrown out for informality of any kind on the first trial of the system; and this result did not arise from non-use of the cumulative feature. Indeed, although we are compelled to deduce the results by means of arithmetic, in the absence of official statements on this point, it is capable of demonstration, that, out of a total number of twenty-one thousand ballots received in the Tower Hamlets division, not more than seven hundred and thirty-four (and undoubtedly the number was * A certain number of electors were allowed to present a name. At a specified time before the election the list of candidates was advertised. During the follow- ing week candidates might decline to have their names used, but after that time no candidate could withdraw. 1871.] Forms of Minority Representation. 11 much smaller) cast one vote for each of five candidates, or, in other words, did not mass more than one vote upon a single candidate. And the most popular of all courses was to plump all the votes on a single favorite, as in the Tower Hamlets, to use the same example, where more than ten thou- sand plumpers of five votes were cast. It may be men- tioned as a further proof that the system is perfectly intelli- gible, that a large proportion of the rejected votes were thrown out because the elector had signed his ballot, which was strictly forbidden by the law. There was no difficulty about the second requirement, name- ly, an increase of the range of choice, because any resident of London was eligible as a member for any district. And in general, it hardly needs to be said, every system of minority representation requires that every district shall be assigned at least three members, or it wholly fails of its purpose. As to its flexibility and adaptability to large districts and small, we are furnished with very few data; but, as will be seen, the actual results were so wide of the mark aimed at, justice and pro- portional representation, that the system must be equally condemned for all. There are the same inequalities noticeable in the returns from every district whose vote we are able to analyze, but it appears that the opportunity for an unfair result is much greater as the constituency is enlarged. In London no district was assigned more than seven members, and no one less than four. It ought to be true of any scheme that approaches perfection, that it comes nearer to the ideal result of exactly pro~ portional representation as the constituency is widened and the number of representatives is increased. There is certainly lit- tle merit in one which must be restricted to the narrowest lim- its to prevent its becoming dangerous. It is very likely that an enlargement of districts would give an increased independence to individual voters. The right of cumulation encourages the formation of small cliques less liable to be controlled by cau- cuses than great and powerful parties. This is, from one point of view, an advantage, but practically its tendency is to divide responsibility, render the action of the elected body less free, and make representatives of all parties timid. It appears that in a large district the feature of proportional representation disappears. We expect to show that in a small district, while 12 .Form8 of Minority Repre8entation. [July, it is nearly as certain that injustice will be done, there is the added certainty that the voters will be bound as strongly as they now are by the decrees of the caucus. Most of these facts will appear on an examination of the analysis which fol- lows. But the main lesson of the analysis, after all, is that this device for proportional representation, so far from accomplish- ing that object, continually jeopards the proper supremacy of the majority.* * For the purpose of illustration, we have selected the returns from the borough of Marylebone, which is the largest constituency in London, and was assigned seven members of the school board. The candidates, with the cumulated vote given to each, will he seen from the following general return of the result. The candi- dates who were elected are designated by an asterisk: Miss Garrett* . . . . 47,858 Mr. Garvey 4,933 Professor Huxley * . . 13,494 Mr. Marshall 4,668 Rev. Mr. Thorold * . . . 12,186 Mr. Guedalla 4,635 Rev. Dr. Angus * . . 11,472 Mr. Cremer 4,402 Mr. Hutchins * . . . 9,253 Mr. Edmunds 3,973 Mr. iDixon* . . . 9,031 Mr. Verey 2,130 Mr. Watson * . . . . 8,355 Mr. Stanford . . 1,486 Mr. Mills . . . . 7,927 Mr. Wyld . . 334 Mr. Powell . . . . 7,852 Mr. Dunn 258 Mr. Whelpton . . . 5,759 Mr. Brewer 103 Mr. Waterlow . . . . 4,994 Mr. Beare 62 We append an analysis of the above vote: Candidate. Ones. Twos. Threes. Fours. Fives. Sixes. Sevens. Total. Garrett, 1,414 1,674 2,687 1,779 340 80 3,677 11,651 Huxley, 852 1,559 1,080 765 65 34 385 4,740 Thorold, 2,698 1,062 741 488 47 14 410 5,460 Angus, 3,001 1,152 693 446 48 15 282 5,637 Hutchins, 286 182 160 129 36 21 1,043 1,857 Dixon, 839 941 600 323 51 9 403 3,166 Watson, 2,535 599 429 222 36 15 311 4,147 Mills, 2,620 707 494 296 19 2 160 4,298 Powell, 2,485 714 468 274 22 8 183 4,154 Whelpton, 258 237 240 148 34 18 491 1,426 Waterlow, 664 498 354 173 21 9 203 1,922 Garvey, 2,495 411 195 81 11 6 88 3,287 Marshall, 2,395 266 147 96 23 4 111 3,042 Guedalla, 425 381 211 115 30 14 303 1,479 Cremer, 548 620 316 173 17 6 79 1,759 Edmunds, 221 253 189 139 19 9 28~ 1,112 Verey, 80 93 83 71 13 4 179 523 Stanford, 110 88 36 41 7 2 113 397 Wyld, 36 20 18 7 2 2 22 107 Dunn, 37 9 20 11 2 2 11 92 Brewer, 23 8 5 7 3 46 Beare, 14 2 3 4 1 24 Totals, 23,036 10,476 9,169 5,788 843 274 8,740 58,326 These tables furnish us with ample means for judging of the cumulative vote as applied under the most favorable circ~mstances, and as exhibiting its virtues and defects in the plainest light. We learn from them both the number of persons vot- ing for each candidate, and the relative cumulation for each. 1871.] Forms of Minority Representation. 13 It is unfortunate that paities were not better defined in the contests for the London school board. As this was the first experiment of putting secular schools in the control of the people, the religious question was the most prominent in the contest; and there were as many parties as there were classes of belief. Professor Huxley was the candidate of the radicals in religion, Mr. Watson of the Presbyterians, Mr. Thorold of the Church party, Mr. Hutchins of the Roman Catholics, and there were workingmens candidates, Unitarians, and others not classified. Nevertheless, we can discover the practical workings of the system nearly as well as if the parties were only two in number. It is rather interesting than important that there was not in either of the London boroughs a candidate who received the votes of an absolute majority of the electors in the borough for which he stood. Even the extraordinary popularity of Miss Garrett, who obtained more than three times as many votes as her nearest neighbor on the poll, caused her to be the choice of only 11,651 persons out of 23,619 exercising the right of suf- frage in Marylebone. The small number of sixes given will also be noticed. The curious fact which it illustrates was noticeable in every borough. Where six candidates were to be chosen, the division into five and one was the least popular; where five were to be chosen there were very few who gave four to one candidate and one to a second. Passing to an examination of the above analysis for prac- tical lessons, the first striking fact is the extraordinary vote received by Miss Garrett. With the causes of this result we have nothing to do, but it may be remarked that it was due to the most thorough canvassing and electioneering, added to the popularity of the lady and the principle she represented. The result itself is important in its teachings. The supporters of Miss Garrett had the absolute power to elect three out of the seven members for Marylebone, and in the division of the voters into factions which actually prevailed, they would prob- ably have elected four. Let us see what a careful as well as brilliant canvass might have done. If the 3,677 electors who each gave her all seven of their votes had cast their 25,739 votes elsewhere, and all who ~ave her six, five, and four 14 Forms of .YTinority Representation. [July, votes each had done the same thing, she would still have had 11,823 votes and stood third on the list. The remaining 35,035 votes, distributed among three other candidates, would have given 11,678 to each of them and elected them all, thus giving to a resolute minority an almost irresistible power to elect a majority of the delegation. It need not be said that equally good arrangements with the union of all opposing elements must inevitably have defeated such an effort to control the board. The lesson of Miss Garretts vote may be concisely stated. The cumulative vote is wasteful. It will always be impossible for a party to decide to what extent it must concen~ trate its powers. The defect is more obtrusive and works greater mischief the further the constituency is enlarged, whereas a perfect system of minority representation will be more self-adjusting, and will work more substantial justice the larger the districts. It has been proposed in England that the state of the poll be published officially at fixed times, giving in- formation that would put a stop to the waste of votes. In some cases this might be useful, but in many others it might induce an unauthorized sense of security, leading voters to refrain from giving any more ballots to a candidate who seems sure of an election, wasting the rest, and thus losing all, in a vain attempt to carry through another candidate of the same opinions. The wastefulness of votes may be shown in another way. It needs no very sharp eye to see by the analytical table given above that there was a full ticket of seven nominated and voted for by many persons who did not make use of the privilege of concentration at all, but gave one vote to each of seven candi- dates. These were IDrs. Thorold and Angus and Messrs. Wat- son, Mills, Powell, Garvey, and Marshall. It may be shown, by means of a calculation which we omit, that the smallest possible number of voters capable of casting the votes which these gentlemen received is 8,205. Properly concentrated, these electors would have been absolutely sure of carrying two members, and would then have had a fraction remaining of more than one half the quota to use in electing the third. As a matter of fact three were chosen, but it was in consequence of the mere chance that others besides themselves wasted votes. With complete concentration by all parties, a cumu 1871.] .Forms of Minority Representation. 15 lated vote of 23,619 woul~l be necessary to elect a candidate, and yet Mr. Thorold, who stood at the head of the list of seven, got but 12,186. Dr. Angus fell seven hundred short of that number, and Mr. Watson had hardly more than one third of the proper quota. In the Birmingham school board election actual mischief was wrought. The liberals, with about two thirds of the voters, attempted to carry too many members, and actually came out of the contest with but two fifths of the members. Such wastefulness is the opportunity of the minority. Let us look at Mr. Hutchinss vote. Mr. Hutchins is a Roman Catholic, and was supported by his coreligionists with char- acteristic ardor. No waste of votes by them. Only 1,857 sev- eral persons voted for him, less than one twelfth of the whole, but the bad generalship of the other parties left open the breach into which they rushed and bore their candidate in triumph. They used the same tactics and with like success in several other constituencies, and are to-day more fully represented in proportion to the number of votes they command than any other sect in the London school board. Let us now endeavor to apply theoretically the cumulative vote to the election of congressmen in Massachusetts. It must be supposed that all district lines are obliterated and members are chosen from the State at large. It is perfectly obvious that if each party were to make up a full ticket of ten candidates and trust to the voters to plump and distribute as they pleased, the result would be anything but satisfactory to the majority. If the average wastefulness of votes was the same on either side, the aggregate wastefulness would be greater on the side of the majority, and consequently theirs would be the loss. An arbitrary division of the State into districts by the leaders of the two parties, based on a canvass, might introduce some- thing like justice into the result, but it would be at the ex- pense of the individual freedom of the voter, and would bring back all the evils of the district system, especially that slavish subservience to the caucus, which is its worst feature. But if there is to be no understanding, how could the vote for Mr. Dawes be kept down? He would draw plumpers of ten by the thousand in Berkshire and by the hundred in Suffolk. Gen 16 Forms of Afinorit~y Representation. [July, eral Butlers admirers might be reasonably expected to treat him with equal honor. Two or three popular Republican mem- bers would be supported by numbers altogether beyond what they would require, and some popular Democrats would be similarly favored. Chance only would determine which party should have the rest. It may be argued with perfect truth that the result is solely dependent upon the good sense of the voters, and that the ten persons who have the largest number of votes will be elected. This is, nevertheless, merely a quib- ble. The result would not reflect the wishes of a majority of the people. If six tenths of the people are Republicans, we must concede that the Republicans should have six members and the Democrats four. But if, by a false estimate of their own strength and a certain independence of impertinent inter- - ference by self-constituted leaders, they give their opponents, who manage better, six members, and get only four themselves, such a result does not recommend the system by which it is brought about. It needs neither argument nor figures to prove that such a consequence would follow the adoption of the cumu- lative vote in all large constituencies at nearly every election, unless every voter is willing to surrender his independence to central committees to an extent never yet anywhere enforced. We may also briefly consider the probable results of the in- corporation of this principle into the Constitution of Illinois. All districts are to be as nearly as possible equal in size, and each is to elect three members. It cannot be pretended by the most ardent advocates of this system that it will secure even an approach to proportionate representation. In general it will probably happen that the majority will choose two repre- sentatives and the minority one. This, however, will work as injuriously as the present system, and even more so. In each of five districts in the southern part of the State, the Democrats may elect two representatives and the Republicans one, and this we will say approaches the proper proportion. In another five districts, including the almost unanimously Republican portions of the State,the Republicans will elect two each and the Democrats one. In the ten districts the two parties will have equal representation, although perhaps the Republicans deserve in justice to have a majority of several members. It is useless 1871.] Forms of Minority Representation. 17 to say that the average in the State will bring it all right again. A system of this kind must deal out equity in individual cases to be worthy of cordial support. However liable to unjust re- sults the cumulative vote may be in large constituencies, it loses all its elasticity and becomes dangerous and unwieldy in three- cornered districts such as Illinois has adopted. It has all the faults of the limited vote. We have spoken of it thus far in connection with the Consti- tution of Illinois, on the theory that it is to work in practice as the convention expected. We may instance two or three not improbable cases to show that it is open to still graver objec- tion. We suppose, for purposes of illustration, that the sena- torial districts, which are assigned three representatives each, have an average voting population of 12,000. In one of these districts, at the last election, the Republicans cast 6,300 votes and the Democrats 5,700. It is by no means exact justice, but it is the nearest practicable approach to it under this system, that the former party should elect two members and the minority one. Messrs. A and B are the Republican candidates, and C and D those of the minority. The Democrats are entitled to only one member, but they hope by superior discipline to choose two. A is a favorite candidate, and B rather less popular. The voters are left free to exercise their preference, the only condi- tion being that they support one or both of. the party candi- dates. The account after the election stands thus Candidate. Ones. Twos. Threes. Total Voters. Total Votes. A, 2,100 3,500 600 6,200 10,900 B, 3,500 2,100 100 5,700 8,000 C, 2,700 2,850 40 5,590 8,520 D, 2,850 2,700 110 5,660 8,580 A, C, and D are elected. The minority of 5,700 have out- generalled the majority of 6,300, or, rather, the majority, exer- cising the privilege of independence, have suffered the fate which individual independence always meets when it is op- posed by an army of well-drilled slaves. We will next sup- pose that the majority have 8,900 voters, and the minority but 3,100. The majority, having nearly three fourths of the voters, are entitled to all three of the members, but there is no pos- sible way in which they can obtain them against the con VOL. CXIII. NO. 232. 2 18 Forms of Minorzty Representation. [July, centrated minority. Having 26,700 votes in the aggregate, and distributing them evenly, each candidate has 8,900; but the candidate of the minority, receiving 3,100 plumpers of three each, leads the poii with 9,300 votes. Not to multiply in- stances, it may be said to be the grand defect of the system as applied to small constituencies, like the senatorial districts of Illinois, that it gives a disproportionate representation to small minorities, and an opportunity to large minorities to steal the majority of representation; while it places the majority at every disadvantage, drives it to the necessity of a party dis- cipline and drill more rigorous than anything yet known in our political history, and hands over the whole electoral system to a coterie of managers and tricksters. We await the experi- ment in Illinois with not a little apprehension. If the theories here advanced be correct, that State has adopted a system which will increase political jobbery and augment the terrors of the party lash, while appearing to be only lending her aid in relieving the distresses of oppressed minorities. The injury, if it be an injury, is wellnigh irreparable. Constitutional changes in the States are slow, and the minority, which gains such undeserved power by the cumulative vote, can for years to come cast insurmountable objects in the way of a return to the old system or the substitution of a better. The only remaining class of devices for securing minority rep- resentation to be noticed are those which limit the elector to one vote, but assure him that his one vote shall not be lost. The several systems that have been proposed differ only in unimpor- tant details. They are all based on the scheme of Mr. Thomas Hare, and no one of the modifications suggested appears to be an improvement. We therefore select the original form as the best exponent of the principle. The principle is threefold. Every body of voters equalling the quotient resulting from the division of the whole number of electors by the number of members to be elected is entitled to a member; the members elected represent the individuals whose votes are counted for them, and not the party to which these individuals belong; hence, as no individual should be represented by more than one member, no vote should be counted for more than one candidate; and, as each member is supposed to represent a certain class of 1871.] Forms of Minorit~q Representation. 19 opinions entertained by a certain body of gentlemen who are not expected to have made a caucus nomination in advance, those holding such opinions should not be condemned to lose their influence on the election, because they chance to prefer before all others a candidate who does not obtain the quota of votes. To illustrate the last principle by a simple case: a quota of thirty-five being necessary by Mr. Hares system for an election, there are thirty-eight gentlemen holding political opinions equally well represented by A, B, or C. Twenty-eight of these voters prefer A and place B second, and ten reverse the order of preference, the whole tw~e~iy-eight putting C third. 30 Our present system of voting would throw away all these votes as counting for nothing, because neither of the three has a plurality. Mr. Hares scheme not only insists that the ten votes which were given for B shall be transferred to A, thus giving him an election, but it insists that the three votes then in excess of the quota shall be transferred again to C or to some other candidate on the list, until one is found upon whom the quota of electors are agreed. To exhibit in detail all the workings of the system would far exceed the proper limits of this article. The principle has been many times explained, and imaginary schedules of votes can be drawn up by any one who will devote a forenoons study to Mr. Hares treatise, or any other exposition of the scheme. The election of thirty of the eighty members of the Danish Rigsrad is conducted on a principle similar to that of Mr. hare, and a little earlier in point of time. The inventor was the famous Danish statesman, Mr. Andrte. There are some minor differences between the two schemes, but they need not be mentioned here.* Some of the Danish rules as to the manner of voting and the canvass of the votes would be in- admissible in America. In general the Danish scheme, which was adopted to neutralize the power of some large districts, has worked well, but the opposition to it has by no means died out. We know of but one instance in which the Hare system * Those who are curious as to the details of the Andra~ system may find them thoroughly explained in a report by Mr. Robert Lytton, representative of the Brit ish government at Copenhagen, of which a very full abstract was pubIi~hed in the London I)aily News for August 30 and 31, 1S64. 20 Forms of Minority Representation. [July, has been put to a practical test. That case was in the nomina- lion of candidates for Overseers of Harvard College in 1870. It must be admitted that for a first attempt the scheme was wonderfully successful. The results were detailed by Mr. Wil- liam R. Ware, in an address before the American Social Science Association, at a meeting held in Philadelphia, October 25, 1870, and subsequently exhibited in a still clearer light in a letter to the president of the society, published in the lately issued volume of the proceedings of the Social Science Associ- ation. The practical workings of the system may be illustrated by the tally and successive counts of votes given by the students of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in an imaginary election for four favorite English authors, held just before the Harvard experiment. The whole number of voters was one hundred and forty-four, and the electoral quotient thirty-six. Ballots had been prepared on which several names were sug- gested, but the voters were to indicate their preference by placing figures representing the order of choice opposite each name, and they were entirely at liberty to add new names as they chose, and in the order of preference. It may be noticed; as a curious illustration of the tendency to follow regular nom- inations, that all four of the elected were taken from among the names suggested on the printed ballot.* * The following would be a typical ballot for such an election Please add to this list of authors any ~ other names you may prefer, and then indicate your preference among them all by wntsng the figure 1 against your ~ first choice, 2 againstynursecond choice p~ and so on. 13 1 Bacon. 6 2 Shakespeare. 5 3 Scott. 4 4 Byron. 10 5 Burns. 7 6 Macaulay. 9 7 Tennyson. 3 5 Thackeray. 1 9 Dickens. 11 10 Milton. 12 11 Goldsmith. 5 12 Chaucer. 2 13 Reade. The first eight only of the names above given were on the printed ballot supplied to the voters, and the others are added to extend the illustration. The progress of the count will be understood from the following table 1871.] Forms of Minority Rep~esentation. 21 Mr. Ware sums up the results of two trials of this system, the first in the mock election at the Institute of Technology, and the second in the serious business of nominating candidates for Overseers for Harvard College, by claiming for the pref- erential system of voting the following advantages 1. It protects the minority from the tyranny of the majority. 2. It protects the minorities and majorities alike from the tyranny of party chiefs. 3. It permits the utmost freedom of individual action. 4. It secures the most perfect co-operation and organization. 5. It gives every elector a representative after his own heart, whom he has actually helped to elect. 6. It gives every representative a constituency who are unan- imous in his support. 7. It gives the representative a certain security in the tenure of his place. 8. It affords a natural and reasonable method of rotation in office. 9. It makes it for the interest of every party to put forward its best men. 10. It makes it worth while for good men to become candi- dates. a a TALLY. ~ e~. ~ .-~ . . 0~0 0~~8 ~O ~ ~ On 144VOTES. ~JI2~~ o~ ~,g ~ ~ ~ a,o ~ ~ ,~E-~a ~ ~ ~a ~O ~8u n.~ 0 ~ ~ ~o.3 .o~3 O+~ .03 ~ 30-n n~ Fourtobe ~5 ~ ~ ~4 ~ 00.0 Elected. .h5~n ~ ~ Qnota,36. ~ I ~ 10o s Cs~~s e-~5 ~ C ~Z ~ ~ i. ii. iii. Iv. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. Bacon, 4444(4] Shakespeare,48[12]====== 86 Scott, 22 5 27 9 36 = = = 86 Byron, 6 2 8 21010 10[10] Burns, 9 2 11 5 16 16 16 4 20 2 22 8 30 2 32 Macaulay, 6 63 9 9 211 1 12(12] Tennyson, 8 8 41212 517 421 72810 38 [2]36 Thackeray, 4 4 4 4[4] Dickens, 11 21313 114 115 116 2 18(18] - Milton 111 2(2] -i--I Scattering, 2626(26] Lost 2213 14 44 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 12 26 I 2 8 ho ~12 15 2 The ballots marked Lost are those which proved, on redistribution, not to contain the names of any of the remaining candidates. Forms of Minorzt~i~ Representation. 22 [July, 11. It is equally efficient whether one candidate is to be chosen or a dozen. 12. It is available in the filling of vacancies as well as in general elections. 13. It is easy for the elector to cast his vote intelligently. 14. It is not difficult to count the votes with precision and promptness. 15. Hardly a ballot is ultimately thrown away. 16. Every ballot is assigned just as the voter who casts it desires. No exception can be taken to several of the above-claimed advantages. So far as the system is considered as securing personal representation, it is most excellent. The freedom of action claimed as an advantage over other systems is not quite so apparent. In theory every voter is already entirely inde- pendent, and party chiefs sometimes find that he is so in fact as well. It cannot be denied that of all forms of minority representation it is the least wasteful, and that the larger the district the more exactly will the representatives be apportioned among parties according to their strength. Nor is there the least danger of voting for too many persons, as in the cumula- tive system. Indeed, votes can only be lost under Mr. Hares system when they contain too few names. But while this scheme avoids every evil of those which have been mentioned previously, it is open to some objections that do not apply to the others. It is impossible to speak of it as a simple system, if the voter is left altogether free to do as he pleases, while if he is under the control of party managers the system loses half its merit. Let us suppose that of the one hundred and forty-four voters in the example given, seventy- five were the partisans of the poets and sixty-nine of the novelists, the latter being under strict discipline and th~ for- mer without organization. The novelists are all under in- structions to vote a straight ticket, with Scott as first choice and Dickens as number two. Scott is elected on the first count, and thirty-three votes are passed over to the account of Dickens. The disorganized poets have scattered their votes among a dozen different candidates. The utmost they can do is to elect two poets with a surplus of three. Without any 1871.] Forms of Minority Representation. 23 previous understanding, it is possible that half the votes cast by the poet-lovers will be lost. It should be noticed that, in the example which is put forward as a fair test of the system, a large minority will obtain equality of representation, although the majority is equally well organized. If the majority num- bers eighty-nine, it gets two representatives and a remainder of seventeen. The minority having one member and a remainder of nineteen for its fifty-five votes, the votes remaining to the majority are redistributed first as being the smaller number. Not containing the name of the minority candidate, they are lost, and the minority takes the fourth member. It is impossible to maintain that this is a simple system. One might fancy the blank amazement of a free citizen of New York City, fresh from the naturalization-mill, and his per- plexity on being told to fill out a ballot in accordance with his preference. Nor would it be necessary to go to New York or to South Carolina to find communities where not one in five of the legal voters could be made to comprehend the sys- tem. The only experiments thus far made are with excep- tionally intelligent constituencies, voting upon a furnished offi- cial ballot with names suggested. Its remarkable success in those elections may be admitted, and yet be no indication of its applicability to our political system. Printed ballots might be prohibited in our present elections, and each voter compelled to prepare his own, with precisely the effect on his independence that the Hare system claims. Most of the voters might under- stand that requirement, but it would be absurd to expect a majority of the male citizens above twenty-one years of age to comprehend the Hare system if left to themselves. The result would be inevitable. Printed ballots all alike would be prepared and cast by the thousand, with an effect precisely similar to that of the Geneva free-list system, with a single improvement. Voters would not absolutely lose their votes by scratching portions of the ticket. The ring candidates would have nearly as great an advantage, because they would be placed at the head of the ticket and stand first in the order of preference of the blindly led voters. In all other respects the results of the two systems would be identical. Indeed, in choosing between the two systems, it is only a question whether we shall take 24 Forms of Minorit~y Representation. [July, the simpler, which all can understand, or that which offers special opportunities to the more intelligent class, and excites the suspicion of those who are unable to comprehend all its complicated details. The difficulties attending the Hare method are by no means ended when the polls are closed. The intelligent gentlemen who had to do with the nomination of Overseers of Harvard College found the counting of the ballots a task of no great difficulty, and yet a glance at the tally of less than two hun- dred votes and their redistribution, in the Institute of Tech- nology, shows that it is a complicated matter, and far beyond the capacity of the average inspector of elections. It is true that the task is chiefly clerical, and proceeds according to well- defined rules, but the rules themselves involve too many pro- cesses to be intrusted to persons selected with so little regard to their fitness as inspectors usually are. It is suggested that the ordinary inspectors would have no more to do than to count the first names on the ballots, and then transmit the result and the ballots to a central bureau or board of general canvassers. One may fancy what a task would then remain to be done, if the voters had carried out the true intent of the Hare system and indicated individual preferences. If party organization had been retained, and party discipline enforced, the work could be done much more readily; but in that case the Hare system would have been reduced to the condition of a complicated form of the Geneva free list. The opportunities for frauds in counting votes must not be overlooked. A partisan board of canvassers, who were also unscrupulous,and this is not so much a supposititious case as we could wish, would have almost unlimited opportunities for falsifying the records and awarding elections to members of their own party who stood far down on the list. In order to verify an election, not only the work of the general cavass- ers, but that of the local inspectors must be gone over, and in precisely the original order. For example, if there should be a dispute about the election of a certain member of Congress, declared to be chosen under the Hare method, every ballot cast for congressmen in the entire State of Massachusetts must be counted successively, and the same order as at first must be 1871.] Forms of Minority Representation. 25 observed both in the recount of precinct packages and in re- vising the work of the State canvassers. To suggest that there may be contested elections in consequence of illegal voting is, unhappily, not to draw too much on the imagination for objections to this system; and the problem of taking out the illegal votes, and stopping their influence at just the proper point, is enough to drive a mind of less than extraordinary fertility of resource to insanity. It need not be said that the confusion incident to this system in an ordinary constituency would be enhanced by extending its operation. If it were to be applied to any election, it should be applied to the choice of all representative bodies. Accordingly, in November, 1872, the voters of Massachusetts might be called upon to cast the following ballots in separate boxes 1. For Electors of President and Vice-President; 2. For Governor and State and county officers; 8. For Senators; 4. For members of the House of Representatives; 5. For members of Congress. Each of these ballots, except the second, must contain a score or two of names, each ballot-box must be watched and the order of votes noted, and separate counts must be made of every ballot. To suggest such an intricate machine for con- ducting an election is to condemn it. Better the tyranny of majorities than the tyranny of inspectors, over whose work supervision would be impossible, and its verification a task to drive those who attempted it into a madhouse. Better to bear the real injustice of our present system than to substitute for it another which would be unintelligible, and therefore unsatis- factory, to a great majority of electors. We have reserved for the last one test of all the systems, the filling of vacancies. On the death of a minority member, chosen under the limited vote or the cumulative vote, the mat- ter must be remitted to the whole body of electors, and the majority would elect. However nearly the previous result had conformed to justice by the operation of either of these systems, the new election disarranges the proportions com- pletely. The Hare system proposes two methods, to pre 26 Forms of Alinoritil Representation. [July, serve the signed ballots which have been assigned to each member, and remit the question to the electors who cast them; or to take the ballots and redistribute them as a surplus, to- gether with the lost ballots. The first method is out of the question for two reasons: the practice of signing ballots is repugnant to our customs and tastes, and there would be al- most insuperable obstacles in the way of obtaining a new ex- pression from the extremely scattered constituency of the deceased candidate. The other method is more to the pur- pose. Mr. Ware exhibits the process in his letter to Mr. Eliot, already referred to, by an example. He supposes Shakespeare to have been withdrawn after the election, and he redistributes the votes with the four lost votes in this manner: I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Bacon . . . 4 4 [4] Byron . . 11 1 12 2 14 14 4 15[15] Macaulay. . . 9 1 10 2 12 4 16 6 22 12 34 Thackeray. . 6 1 7 7 [7] Dickens. . . 7 7 7 3 1O[IO] Scattering. . 3 [3] Lost. . . . 6 6 40 40 40 40 40 40 3 4 7~ 10 15 This elects Macaulay as the successor of Shakespeare. With regard to this experiment Mr. Ware remarks that the result of it corresponded exactly with what was observed in a redistri- bution of the votes of a candidate for Overseer of Harvard College. He further contends that this experiment shows, moreover, that, contrary to the generally received opinion, the system of preferential voting is applicable to the choice of a single candidate. In such case it enables the party of the minority to select between two candidates of the majority, pre- venting a mere majority of the majority from dictating the result. This may be true in some cases, but it will hardly do to be laid down as a rule. Supposing that the Republicans of Massachusetts nominate A for Governor, while a considerable section prefer B. The Democrats nominate C and prefer B to A. Forty thousand vote a ticket containing the name of A first, and B second; thirty thousand vote the same ticket with 1871.] Forms of Minority Representation. 27 the order reversed; and fifty thousand Democrats vote first for C, and place the name of B after it. The votes for B, being the lowest in number as the first choice, are redistributed and go to A, who thus has seventy thousand. Cs votes follow; as B is already a rejected candidate, the whole number of them are lost, and A is elected. Thus the minority not only has not the power to choose between two majority candidates, but a candidate who may be on every ticket as first or second choice is thrown out, and A, who was the first choice of only one third, and acceptable under any circumstances but to a bare majority, is elected, as he would have been under our present system. The free list here again steps to the front as the simplest plan yet devised in the filling of vacancies. The ticket on which was the name of the retiring candidate is a matter of record, and the first name of an unsuccessful candi- date on that list is placed in the vacant seat. A general summing up of the results of these several sys- tems seems hardly necessary. Tried by the severe tests to which they must be subjected if adopted into our electoral sys- tem, they one and all fail in some important particular. That which is theoretically the most perfect attains its superiority by sacrificing simplicity. It will work admirably when the average human intellect is keener by many degrees than it now is; but it is to be hoped that, before the arrival of that happy era, the spirit of injustice and selfishness, which causes the tyranny of majorities, will have disappeared, and the necessity for so intricate a system will have disappeared along with it. The cumulative vote transfers the bludgeon from the hands of the majority to those of the minority. We should hear no more of the tyranny of majorities after its adoption, but we should feel very perceptibly the power of ambitious and tyrannical minorities. The limited vote does not secure an equitable representation of majorities and minorities. In place of our present system, giving all the representatives to one party in each district, it merely substitutes a rigid rule that the minority, however small, and the majority, however large, shall have a certain fixed proportion of representatives. To the free-list vote there can be but one objection; it secures rep- resentation as nearly as possible in proportion to the num 28 Forms of Minority Representation. [July, ber of voters, and it is as simple as possible, but it rivets the chains of party, and consolidates the power of party man- agers. If compelled to decide between the four plans in a choice of a new political system, we must unhesitatingly prefer the free list, at least as a beginning. If it should appear, after trial, that the faults of the free list were those which a resort to the Hare system might obviate, the people would possi- bly, by that time, have become capable of adopting the slight modifications with the greater complications of that scheme. Party control of the electors is inevitable in a government constituted like ours. It is not altogether such an evil as it is commonly credited with being. Control by rings, formed for purposes of plunder and office getting, is wholly bad, but the subservience to it by the better class of citizens is simply the result of their indifference. It may be stated as a rule, to which there are no exceptions, that in any party the greater number are honest, and do not care for or be- long to the ring. It is only a question how long they will submit to irresponsible management by the worst men in their ranks. Any caucus fairly representing the party under whose auspices it is called will nominate a ticket which can receive the honest support of the whole party. The candidates will be true representatives of the principles held .by the nomi- nating caucus; and as no man has a claim to any office, the order of preference can be and would be arranged according to the ability, fitness, and integrity of the several nominees. This sounds utopian, it is true. But while we have little hope of an early return to good nominations through the caucus sys- tem, the Crawford county plan, or any other of the numerous suggestions of the day, we may at least maintain without ques- tion the proposition that with a reform in nominations the last objection to the free list is removed. A reform quite as much needed has already been suggested. The system of requiring representatives to be residents of districts, and of reducing districts to the smallest proportions, is a relic of that sort of local pride which was most offensive in the guise of the State rights doctrine. We ought to have outgrown it. It is founded on the false principle that the interest of one ward is 1871.] Forms of .Miinoritll Representation. 29 distinct from that of the city, of a State from that of the Union, and that there should be sectional representation. The prin- ciple is, however, deeply rooted in the public affections, and we cannot afford to wait for its eradication before we proceed to the other important amendment of our methods in the matter of nominations. The great political problem of the day is, therefore, to pave the way for a change that is impending, by a reform in party management. Without that reform, the adoption of any new system of elections would be dangerous to the last degree. Cliques within parties are already too common, and they already have too great influence. We must not make them self-perpetuating and capable of further aggrandizement by means of either of the suggested plans. But if we can restore to the honest rank and file of the party the control of nomina- tions, we strike at the root of the present evil. With candi- dates selected on the true principles, we are sure to have good government, whatever party wins. The urgency of the case is great. Specious theories of the justice of minority represen- tation have become so wide-spread, that there is great danger of the people being driven to the adoption of one scheme or another in a totally unprepared state. It is the part of true conservatism as of true radicalism to bring about reforms in their natural and philosophical order. Our present political~ system is not wholly bad, although it has been greatly abused, It contains within itself all the elements of regeneration. It is absurd to clamor for a radical change in our methods of election, when nearly all the evils complained of arise from causes which are left untouched by any of the new methods proposed, which are rather aggravated by them. Rather let all our political philosophers turn their attention to the problem of inducing parties to put forward good and honest men, of emancipating them from the influenc& and control of rings, of educating the people to take an interest in primary elections, to insist on good nominations and to bolt relentlessly all that are bad, and we shall get good government without minority representation, or we can adopt a new system without danger. EDWA.RD STANWOOD. 80 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, ART. II. 1. Die Religion der Remer nach den Queilen dargestelit von J. A. HARTUNG. Erlangen: bei J. J. Palm und Ernst Ecke. 1836. 2 vols. 8vo. pp. 320 and 298. 2. Die Religion der R~Ymer, von 0. G. ZUMPT. Berlin: bei Ferdinand Diimmler. 1845. l2mo. pp. 31. 3. flandbuch der R& ~mischen Alterlhiimer nach den Quellen bearbeitet. Begonnen von WILHELM ADOLPH BECKER; fort- gesetzt von JOACHIM MARQUARDT. Vierter Theil: Der Gottes- dienst. Leipzig: Verlag von S. llirzel. 1856. 8vo. pp. 568. 4. Rdmische Mythologie. Von L. PRELLER. Berlin: Weid- mannsche Bucihandlung. 1858. 8vo. pp. 820. THE Mythology of the Greeks and Romans, as it has heretofore been taught in our school-books and used as material in modern literature, is in truth neither Greek mythology nor Roman mythology, but an incongruous mixture of the two, Grecian fable with Roman nomenclature. So long as it was purely a matter of fancy and of literary concern, there was no great harm done. Everybody understood what was meant by the Olympian Jove, the Eleusinian worship of Ceres, and the temple of Diana of the Ephesians, better indeed than if we had said Zeus, Demeter, and Artemis. But with the present century has come in a new school of philology, which has abandoned the merely literary treatment of such themes for one rigidly scientific, and which has discovered that names are not an indifferent matter in science; in fact, that, in such a field of inquiry as this, the name is often the key to the entire investigation. Max Muller, indeed, the leading authority in this new school, asserts that mythology is simply a phase in the growth of language, an assertion in which we may rec- ognize an important truth under an cxaggerated form of state- ment. Perhaps there was a little pedantry in the first zeal for calling the Greek divinities by their right names, but it was at bottom a genuine, if blind and pedantic, striving for scientific accuracy. And now that Comparative Mythology has come up as a science, we can see that one of its first and most essential requirements was to distinguish with precision between the religious systems of these two related peoples, and that the

80 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, ART. II. 1. Die Religion der Remer nach den Queilen dargestelit von J. A. HARTUNG. Erlangen: bei J. J. Palm und Ernst Ecke. 1836. 2 vols. 8vo. pp. 320 and 298. 2. Die Religion der R~Ymer, von 0. G. ZUMPT. Berlin: bei Ferdinand Diimmler. 1845. l2mo. pp. 31. 3. flandbuch der R& ~mischen Alterlhiimer nach den Quellen bearbeitet. Begonnen von WILHELM ADOLPH BECKER; fort- gesetzt von JOACHIM MARQUARDT. Vierter Theil: Der Gottes- dienst. Leipzig: Verlag von S. llirzel. 1856. 8vo. pp. 568. 4. Rdmische Mythologie. Von L. PRELLER. Berlin: Weid- mannsche Bucihandlung. 1858. 8vo. pp. 820. THE Mythology of the Greeks and Romans, as it has heretofore been taught in our school-books and used as material in modern literature, is in truth neither Greek mythology nor Roman mythology, but an incongruous mixture of the two, Grecian fable with Roman nomenclature. So long as it was purely a matter of fancy and of literary concern, there was no great harm done. Everybody understood what was meant by the Olympian Jove, the Eleusinian worship of Ceres, and the temple of Diana of the Ephesians, better indeed than if we had said Zeus, Demeter, and Artemis. But with the present century has come in a new school of philology, which has abandoned the merely literary treatment of such themes for one rigidly scientific, and which has discovered that names are not an indifferent matter in science; in fact, that, in such a field of inquiry as this, the name is often the key to the entire investigation. Max Muller, indeed, the leading authority in this new school, asserts that mythology is simply a phase in the growth of language, an assertion in which we may rec- ognize an important truth under an cxaggerated form of state- ment. Perhaps there was a little pedantry in the first zeal for calling the Greek divinities by their right names, but it was at bottom a genuine, if blind and pedantic, striving for scientific accuracy. And now that Comparative Mythology has come up as a science, we can see that one of its first and most essential requirements was to distinguish with precision between the religious systems of these two related peoples, and that the 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 81 first step towards this was to use names rightly. So long as Poseidon was called Neptune, and Ares Mars, the foundations of the new science could not be laid. This first step has now been welinigh accomplished. Very few persons of any pretension to scholarship insist any longer upon confounding tege~hoi~ two independent sets of deities under common names. But while the Grecian gods have re- covered their true names, and Grecian mythology has thus been placed upon a sound basis, the discarded Roman names have ceased to have a meaning to us. We know Zeus and Hera and Athena now; we have known them all our lives, it seems; but who are Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva? Roman mythology is hardly better known at least among English and American scholars than it was fifty years ago; 1,hat is to say, hardly at all. When mythology was purely a matter of art and literature, so that, as remarked above, it mattered very little whether the god of fire was called Hephaistos or Vulcan, Roman mythology was also a matter of little consequence, for the reason that it afforded very little material for art and literature. More- over it was not strange that the best scholars were almost wholly ignorant of it, for the reason that the facts with regard to it were so hard to get at, scattered in out-of-the-way authors, or hidden under a mass of irrelevant matter. The Roman poets for the most part do not give us Roman mythology, but Greek. Even Ovid, in his Fasti, the only work of Roman literature which makes a pretence to embody the traditions of national mythology, draws quite as much from Greek as from Roman sources; and it is often impossible to say, even where he appears to be giving us pure Roman legend, whether he is not, after all, making up a story. Thus the graceful story of Anna Perenna, in the third book, is evidently his own work, suggested by the identity of the name in the fourth book of the .A~neid with that of the Latin goddess; and all we get from this long episode, towards an understanding of the genuine Roman faith, is the description of the usages and habits of a popular festival, from which we may draw our own conclusions as to its origin. In the scientific discussion of mythology, on the other hand, 82 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, Italian traditions are of the first importance. Indeed, it may be doubted whether their scientific value is not enhanced by the fact that they were not subjected to the distorting and transforming influences of poetry. Hartung, in his Religion der Griechen, points out that the original and genuine traditions of Greek religion are to be sought, not in the poets, but rather in such works as the Itinerary of Pausanias. The poets and artists took the crude myth and moulded and modified it to serve their purposes; Pausanias dryly describes institutions and usages of immemorial antiquity, and from these we can learn what the people actually believed and how they wor- shipped. Now our authorities for Roman mythology are mostly of this character. It was for the most part let alone by the poets, save in the single instance of Ovids Fasti, a work which is of priceless value in this investigation, for the reason that it gives us just what Pausanias does, a description of forms and customs. What it contains more than this may be of service and may not; at any rate, it needs to be sifted; but these de- scriptions are genuine. Next to Ovids Fasli, in our materials for this study, will perhaps come Augustines De Civitate Dei, which contains a summary of the views of Varro, the most learned Roman antiquarian, introduced by the Christian writer for the purpose of being refuted. Besides these we have little more than scraps and fragments. Varros treatise De Lingua Latina is partly preserved, and is of the highest value, so far as it goes. Of Verrius Flaccus, the next antiquarian in merit, we have a portion of an abridgment by Festus, in a ter- ribly corrupt and mutilated condition, and an abridgment of Festus by Paulus Diaconus. The commentary of Servius upon Virgil comes next in order; he was not himself an antiquarian of the rank of Varro and Verrius, but he copied many a curious bit of information into his hotchpotch of a commentary. So did Aulus Gellius too, whose Nodes Atticw may indeed rank above the commentary of Servius. Besides these, we have some late writers; like Macrobius, a few allusions and state- ments in that poet of genuine learning, Virgil, in Cicero and the elder Pliny, and not a few inscriptions of value. These materials, it will be seen, are, after all, not so very scanty; it is a question whether we are not, in some respects, 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 33 better informed as to the original religious institutions of the Romans than as to those of the Greeks. Neither is this material altogether so dry and unedifying as might be sup- posed; nor is the Roman mythology wholly destitute of stories of love and adventure, such as those in which the Greek mythology abounds. Many of their gods were married; Mars and Nerio, Neptune and Salacia, Saturn and Ops, were faithful pairs. The pleasant story in Ovid (Met. XIV. 623), how Ver- tiunnus sought the love of the shy Pomona; how, changing his form, he was the counterpart of Proteus, he appeared suc- cessively as a reaper, a mower, a vine-pruner, a soldier, etc., and then as an old woman, who lectured and warned the maiden, finally in his own youthful form, and won his bride: this story and numbers like it may be dressed up by the poet, but can hardly have been wholly invented by him. Nevertheless, it must be confessed that stories like this are not characteristic features of the Roman religion; that it did not encourage flights of the imagination, but was serious and earnest, running to observance and ceremonial rather than to fable. It was remarked by an eminent German scholar that the Romans had no mythology, only sacred antiquities (got- tesdienstliche Alterthi~mer), an assertion which has enough truth in it to serve as a general description. This expresses the most fundamental distinction between the Greek and Roman religious systems; but it will be interesting, and indeed essential to our discussion, to inquire in what further particulars they differed from each other; that is, what different development the two related nations gave to the same original faith. In a previous article * I described this original faith, com- mon to the ancestors of both Greeks and Romans, as starting in the immanence of the divine power, inhabiting, inspiring, and vivifying every living thing, nay, every inanimate object, and every action of life; . . . . a sort of pantheism, a belief, not in one God pervading all nature and identified with nature, but in millions of gods, a god for every object, for every act. Pandemonism, Preller calls it. In anthropomorphizing, or in- vesting these divinities with personality and human shape and * North American Review, for July, 1869. VOL. CXIII. NO. 232. 3 84 The Religion of the Ancient .Romans. [July, attributes, consisted the development from fetichism to poiy- theism; and it is the special excellence and glory of the Greeks that this anthropomorphism was so complete, and that the Greek Qlympus contains no man-bulls or cat-headed monsters by the side of the perfectly human Zeus, Apollo, and Aphrodite. The Centaurs and Minotaurs of Greek mythology were few in number and of subordinate importance. The Romans lacked the, high ~esthetic sense which preserved the Greeks from the puerile bestialities of Oriental mythologies. On the other hand, they had their own protective in an even higher and nobler quality. Their conservative and practical temper led them to cling to that primitive mode of regarding the divine power which the Greeks lost sight of in the indi- viduality of their deities. The Greeks, out of the original numina, or & Li~oveq, had created their marvellous Olympus of living gods and goddesses, their ideal of perfect humanity. The Romans, on the other hand, were capable of only a very moderate degree of anthropomorphism. Their gods were per- sons, it is true, but they were not, as a whole, invested with any very marked human attributes; and it was found easier to keep up the habit of imputing individual acts to distinct deities, than to extend the sphere of activity of the gods they already had. Hence the multitudinousness of their pantheon. No other nation, perhaps, would have conceived of a special divine spirit, existing merely for the purpose of causing Hannibal to turn his back on Rome when already in sight of the city. The IRomans indeed might have given the credit of it to Jupiter or Mars, and invested him with a new attribute and built him a new temple; instead of that, they chose to build a shrine, on the spot which Hannibal last occupied, to the Deus Rediculus, the god who caused the turning about. But the most re- markable illustrations of this practice are found in the Indigita- inenta, or books of religious formulas, and other remnants of the did worship. Every act of life had its peculiar divinity, to be invoked in its proper time and place. There were some sixty or seventy of these, who presided over the growth of the human body alone, Vagitanus, who opened the mouth of the infant for his first cry; Cunina, who guarded the cradle; Educa, who taught the infant to eat; Patina, who taught him to drink; 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient .Romans. 35 Ossipago, who knit the bones, etc. Then for husbandry, there were Nodutu8, who caused the joints of the stalks to grow; Volutina, who wrapped them in their leaf-sheaths; Patelina, who opened the wrappings, that the ear might come out in due season; flostilina, who made the crop even in its ears; down to Runcina, who presided over the pulling of the roots from the ground. These were not strictly gods, even in the polytheistic sense of the word, but nurnina, or attendant spirits. But above all, and this is the source of what is purest and noblest in the Roman religion, they delighted in recognizing the divinity that inspired every virtuous thought and act, the worship of abstract qualities. It was a necessary accom- paniment of this characteristic, that harmful spirits and vicious qualities should also be recognized and worshipped; but it is a remarkable and honorable fact, that the Romans were never led astray by this to an overweening service of evil deities. They propitiated Vejovis, the bad Jove, and Febris, Fever, and Mephitis, Malaria; but there was no devil-worship or servic& of Moloch: so far from it, indeed, that they did not even feel sure who Vejovis was, although they regularly sacrificed to him. (Ov., Fasti, III. 435, if.) The Romans had an un- wavering faith that the powers of good were superior to those of evil. This worship of abstractions went probably far be- yond that of any other mythological system, and is the most striking and characteristic feature of the Roman theology. Other mythologies possess it in a degree; the Athenians built temples to Unwinged Victory and to Health. But the Romans, besides Victoria and Salus, had Honor, Pudicitia, Fortune, Pax, Libertas, and Concordia among their most honored deities. Indeed, several of those gods who rank as personalities were abstractions at the outset. Minerva was the abstraction of mental power (mens)., Mercury the abstraction of traffic (rnerx), Janus the god of opening ( janna), and Saturn the god of sow- ing (satus). On the other hand, while the Romans went far beyond the Greeks in the worship of abstractions, they lost, in a much greater degree, the worship of elementary spirits, which had been in reality the starting-point of each theology. Ouranos, Gaia, Okeanos, were reverenced by the side of Zeus, iDemeter, 86 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, and Poseidon; but the Romans had only the personal gods, Jupiter and Neptune, Bona Dea and Dea Dia, while Tellus (rather than Terra) did not hold a high rank in their worship. This fact illustrates the different development of the two peo- ples. Both started with the worship of elementary spirits; in both the spirit of the firmament, Zeus or Jupiter, naturally took the first rank, and other spirits, of water, fire, earth, etc., were personified by his side. Then when these had become completely anthropomorphized, and their origin was forgotten, while their power was reverenced, the imaginative Greeks re- peated the same process, and created new deities of earth, sky, and water by the side of the old; while the practical Romans turned themselves to the contemplation of the human virtues, or provided for the whole range of human sentiments and actions, by regarding each of them as produced and controlled by an indwelling spirit. The Romans again, aside from what passed as history, lacked the demigods and heroes, who make so large a part of the Greek system, and who, one would think, would be pecu- liarly congenial to the Roman temper of mind. And, as a matter of fact, this proved to be the case; for among the earliest Greek deities whose worship was engrafted upon the Roman tradition were demigods like Hercules and the Dios- cnn, heroes like A~neas and Evander. Almost the only native Italian deity who is reckoned among the heroes is Semo Sancus, 6r Dius Fidius, who had two or three temples at Rome, and who was frequently identified with Hercules, for no other apparent reason than that both were commonly adjured in oaths, me kercule, me dius fidius. But why the god whose very name, Fidius, implies that he was the spirit of faith, and of whom not a single legend is narrated, who is as purely an abstrac- tion as Concordia or Spes, should be called a hero, it is at first sight hard to see. His second name means nearly the same as his first; semo is spirit, sancus is usually connected etymologically with sanctus, holy. But Sancus or Sangus was really an object of tradition, being the alleged founder of the Sabine nationality; and it was natural, perhaps, that he should be identified with this favorite of Greek tradition, Hercules, whose name and worship were spread far and wide along the 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 87 Mediterranean. Just as he was identified with the Sabine Sancus, his name superseded that of the Latin iRecarenus, the slayer of Cacus in the original legend; and in the East he was adopted by the Phoenicians as their god Melkarth under another name. This conservative temper, which, as we have seen, was the source of what was best in the Roman religion, by keeping alive the faith in the immanence of the divine power, had, how- ever, its weak side, and was equally the source of the worst peculiar feature of this worship, that is, its excessive formality. All Roman history illustrates this. The service is vitiated, and the games must be renewed, says Cicero (Har. iRes. XI. 23), if the pantomimist makes a sudden pause, or the flute- player interrupts his blowing, or the boy stumbles 6r loses hold of the chariot, or lets the reins fall, or if the presiding edile makes a slip of the tongue or a false motion with the cup of libation~ cases were known in which the same rites must be begun over again fifty times before they were accomplished in due form. Or take the formalities required in the case of the Fiamen Dialis, or priest of Jupiter, next the Rex Sacr~ficulus the highest priest in the hierarchy. (Aul. Gell. X. 15.) In the first place he must be of pure patrician birth, of parents married by the ancient patrician ceremony of confarreatio; he himself must have married a virgin by the same ceremony, and his wife bore the title of Flaminica. He must not ride a horse, nor look upon a marshalled army outside the pomceriurn (that is, except when it entered the city in a triumphal procession), nor take an oath, nor wear a solid ring, nor a knot in any part of his clothing. His hair must not be cut except by a free man, and the cuttings of both hair and nails must be buried under a tree of good omen. He must not touch nor even name a goat, uncooked meat, ivy, or beans, nor must he touch dough when fermenting. A bound prisoner brought into his house must be set free, and the chains re- moved, not by the door, but by the impluviuin, or opening in the roof. So if a person who is to be scourged falls as a suppliant at his feet, the scourging must be remitted for that day. He must not touch a dead body, nor take part in a funeral, nor enter a tomb. He must not strip his body, except under a roof. 88 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, The legs of his bed must be smeared about with mud, and he must never be away from it three nights together. Unquestionably all these points had a meaning and an object once, and are simply an illustration of forms kept up with strictness long after they had lost their vitality. What is pecu- liar to the Romans is the multiplicity of them, and the painful precision with which the smallest details were insisted upon. The religion of the Greeks and Romans consisted, as Zumpt has pointed out, not in doctrine, like that of the Hebrews and Persians, but in faith and ceremonial, and its very life de- pended upon maintaining the forms pure and unimpaired. Now that we have discussed the great distinctive features of the Roman religion, let us proceed to consider some special classes of religious ideas, which will best illustrate the char- acter of their faith and worship and the points of resemblance and contrast with those of the Greeks. We shall then be pre- pared to glance at their religious system as a whole, their theogony and Olympus, if we could use these words for so jejune a creation, and to trace the history of their religious ideas and forms of worship. It has been said that the primitive Roman wtrship was directed to the divine spirit dwelling in an object or inspiring an action or process of nature, the thought that lies at the foundation of fetich worship. We meet indeed with not a few real fetiches in the developed worship of the city. Of this nature were the plants sacred to the several gods, the oak of Jupiter, the myrtle of Venus, the sacer Fauno foliis oleaster amaris (Virg. .A~n. XII. 766); and the animals sacrificed to them, the boar to Mars, the cow to Diana, the sow to Ceres. Such was the sacred fire in which the divinity of Vesta was conceived to reside. So with the ficus ruminalis, under which Romulus and Remus had been found in infancy, and which was believed to have been afterwards conveyed to the corni- tium by divine power. Still better examples are the flint-stone kept in the temple of Jupiter and used in oaths (per Jovem lapidem was a common oath. Cic. ad Fain. VII. 12); the lapis manalis, kept by the temple of Mars, and carried through the city when rain was needed; best of all the lance (or lances) of Mars, kept with the sacred shields in the Regia. 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 89 It was a most portentous omen when this lance moved of its own accord, and one to be consulted upon by the highest powers of the state. When war was declared, the commander entered the sacred building, struck the shields and then the spear, cry- ing out, Mars, vigila! Mars, awake I Neither is the prin- ciple of that form of fetich wanting which has received the name of totem, a fetich appropriated to a tribe and trans- mitted by hereditary descent, as is found especially among the North American Indians. At least among the cognate Italian tribes we recognize the Hirpinians as receiving their name from the wolf (kirpus) of Mars, and the Picenians from the wood- pecker (picus) of Mars, which had guided them to their new homes. The Hirpi Sorani, or wolves of Soranus, will be men- tioned presently. There are some traces among the Romans of that serpent- worship which plays so important a part in some religious sy~- tems. The genius, or indwelling spirit of the man, appears under the form of a serpent, as is illustrated by the occurrence when iEneas sacrificed at his fathers tomb (A~n. V. 84). Propertius (IV. 8) describes an oracle at Lanuvium, to which the seekers approached down a dark opening, and fed hungry serpents with the hand. If the maiden is chaste, she returns in safety, and the husbandmen joyfully shout that the year will be a fruitful one. Of wilful indecencies the Italian religion was, in its original forms, almost absolutely free, although many such grew up in after time. Fairies and elves, the graceful creation of Northern mytholo.. gies, were foreign to the notions of the Greeks and Romans. The Greeks made up for this with a wonderful abundance and variety of nymphs and other beings, completely human in bodily aspect, and with no magic powers, but the living em- bodiment of the simple powers of nature. The Roman equiva- lent for the nymphs were the Virw or Vires. These were jQined with Diana in the worship at the Nemean sanctuary, but are otherwise a wholly shadowy existence to us, not even hav- ing made their way into poetry; their name, however, has been developed into the better known Virgo and virago. The com- panion male beings, on the other hand, the fauns and silvani, are better known, and represent for us not merely the Greek 40 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, satyrs, but the weird creatures of Northern mythology. Fau- nus, the favorer, is the old god of nature, a chief personage in the earliest mythology. As having the ear to the secrets of nature, he is a prophetic god; as the father of the Italian theogony, he was transformed into an early king. In his whole nature he corresponds very closely with the Greek Pan, and, like him, was multiplied, in the popular conception, into a class. The name, therefore, which at first was that of the chief god of nature, was afterwards applied to the lesser gods of the wood and field, corresponding in this sense to the Greek satyrs. The same is true of Silvanus, always an inferior being to Fau- nus. The .fauni and 8ilvani, then, were often playful or mali- cious beings, like the dwarfs, alps, and scrattles of German fairy-land. To protect against their pranks, the children wore the bulla and other amulets. Especially was Silvanus to be dreaded after the birth of a child; and mother and infant were protected by three deities, Intercidona with an axe, Pilumnus with a mortar, and IDeverra with a broom, to personate whom three men went about the house at night with axe, mortar, and broom, cutting, pounding, and sweeping the thresholds. There were also the vampire striga~, who sucked the blood of infants in the cradle. Against these Carna or Cranea, the goddess of the hinge, was invoked, who touched the threshold and door-posts with a bough of arbute, sprinkled the door- way with charmed water, and threw out the entrails of a young pig, saying Birds of the night, spare the vitals of the child; a little victim is slain for the little one. Take this heart for his heart, I pray, this flesh for his. We give you this life for a better one. Then she puts in the window a twig of white thorn, the plant sacred to Carna, and the child is safe. The Romans did not originally incline to mysteries, such as those of Eleusis, Samothrace, Imbros, and Crete, in which the Greek religion abounded. Leaving out of consideration the rites of Cybele, Bacchus, and others, which were purely exotic, and of late introduction, there were still, however, a few native mysteries very early in origin and very widely reverenced. There were secret rites to Angerona, in the temple of Yolu- pia, in allusion, says Hartung, to the anguish which is 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 41 turned to rapture. The best known, however, and most im- portant are those of Bona Dea, the good goddess, whose very name is a mystery, although she has been identified with Fauna, Ops, and others. It is probable that she represented the fructifying powers of the earth, and her festival was on the first day of the month of increase (Maius), whence also she was called Maia. Her mysteries, however, were celebrated in December, in the house of the highest magistrate, by women alone, and appear in later times to have acquired a wild and orgiastic character. The sacrilege by which Clodius managed to witness these rites, and the uproar it made in the state, can only be compared to the famous mutilation of the statues at Athens. It is too familar an event to need more detailed mention; neither need we conclude that the fearful picture drawn by Juvenal of the license of these rites is even approxi mately true for the times of the Republic. Although mysterious rites did not much abound among the Italians, yet there were several mysteries, that is, secrets, the secret name of the city of Rome, which was concealed in order that no enemy, by learning it, could call forth (evocare) its protecting deities; and those of several classes of gods, to guess which a great deal of learning and ingenuity has been expended. We may safely conclude that what was a secret then will be a secret now. And in reference to such classes Preller says (p. 549): In general it must be assumed that all g6ds of lesser rank which were conceived as pure spirits (ddrno- nenartig), and for this very reason were named and invoked only as classes, originally had no personal names, either in Greece or Italy. It will be worth while, however, to exam- ine a little more in detail points which are so characteristic of Roman modes of thought. The Dii Consentes and Dii Involuti appear to belong rather to the system of the Etruscans, who were peculiarly fond of dark and sombre articles of faith. And yet it appears clearly from Varro, that the Consentes had temples in Rome (L. L. VIII. 71), and that their statues, twelve in number, six male and six female, stood on the Forum. They might, therefore, be identified with the Twelve Olympian Gods; but we are expressly told that their names were unknown, and we 42 The Religion of the Ancient .Romans. [July, must bear in mind that this idea of twelve chief gods is Greek, not Roman. The list of them, given by Ennius, Vesta, Min~rva, Ceres, Juno, Diana, Venus, Mars, Mercurius, Jovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo, includes several, as will be shown presently, who are essen- tially foreign deities. On the whole, it seems most rational to assume that there was really no secret here. The Dii Con- sentes were the council of Jove, having no individuality, and therefore no names of their own. The Involuti are conjec- tured by Gerhard to be represented in an Etruscan relief, as two partially veiled figures, sitting back to back, with the backs of their hands placed before their mouths. We shall not prob- ably be wrong in identifying them, as Gerhard does,* with the Fates, as a council higher than that of the Consentes. The Etruscans taught (Seneca, Nat. Qu. II. 41) that Jove hurls his first thunderbolt alone, to inspire terror; the second; which hurts but heals, by the advice of the twelve gods (the Con- sentes, no doubt); the third, which blasts and destroys, ad- kibitis in consilium dis, quos superiores et involutos vocant. The names of the Penates were also a secret, both those of the city, and especially the great gods worshipped at Lavinium, which tEneas was supposed to have brought with him. But the word is of pure Latin derivation, and it is not likely that the alleged connection with Troy or Samothrace was anything but .a theory, started when the Greeks and Romans came into con- tact with each other along the coast, like the whole story of the colonization of iEneas, and the stories of Evander, Hercules, Sancus, Catillus, etc. Very likely the Penates of Rome were the secret gods of the city, connected with its secret name. Another much disputed name is that of the Dii Indigetes, gen- erally rendered th~ native gods, a rendering which is correct as far as it goes. It is applied to such characters as .A~neas and Ca3culus, the native heroes, EVy~cifitO~, of Lavinium and Prameste respectively. But it appears to imply something more than nativity, or even divinity; it carries with it the con- ception of the spirit or numen the genius that dwells in the place and the people, a connection almost as close as that of father of the race. * TJber die Gottheiten der Etrusken, Aum. 17. 18Th] The Religion of the Ancient Roman8. 43 A still more puzzling class are the Novensiles orNovensides. In the formula of invocation used by Decius when about to devote himself (Liv. VJIJ. 9) they are mentioned: Jane, Jupiter, Mars pater, Quirine, Bellona, Lares, divi novensiles, di indigetes, divi quorum est potestas nostrorum hostiumque, diique manes, etc. These are all deities either of high rank, or peculiarly Roman, or specially connected with the act of self-devotion. Janus was invoked first, as on all occasions; then the three great national gods Jupiter, Mars, and Quiri- nus; then the goddess of war, the deified ancestors, the heroes, the shades. From the position of the novensiles, by the side of the indigetes, these have been supposed to mean respectively the native gods and those which were originally foreign, thus deriving the word from novus, new; this is Hartungs view, and was held by the ancient writer Cincius. Varro and Piso, how- ever, say that they were Sabine gods, and the name has been found on inscriptions in the Sabine country. It seems more natural, therefore, to derive the name from novein, nine, and to consider them a special group of deities introduced from the Sabines, whose functions had some natural connection with the act of devotion. It does not seem likely that these two terms would be used on this occasion in order to include all existing deities, especially after s6 peculiar a list has been enumerated as that given; and at any rate it would be strange that we have no other instance of the use of novensiles and i~n- digetes in this distributive sense. May it not be doubted also whether the native, indigetes, would not have stood first in this case? I am inclined, on the whole, to the view of Manilius, that they were the nine gods who, according to the Etruscans, had the power of hurling the thunderbolt, a meaning quite appropriate to their occurrence in a formula of devotion. In nothing were the Romans more distinguished from the Greeks than in the mode of seeking the will of the gods. They had no Apollo, whose frenzied hierophants uttered ora- cles under a divine affiatus. But the formal auspices which the magistrates consulted, and which were interpreted by the college of augurs, were among the most characteristic of the institutions of the state. Everything was simple and definite, and reduced to rigid rules. It was not all birds, at all times, 44 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, that conveyed the will of the gods, but only certain ones, when the magistrate consulted them with well-defined ceremonies. It was to him only that the auspices were sent; the augur was but the skilled interpreter who was called in to explain phe- nomena, but who had no power himself to seek for the signs. This resulted from the fundamental principle that the state rested upon the divine will, as declared in the auspices. The auspices belonged to the citizens as a body, that is, to the patricians; the chief magistrate for the time being had them in his possession; but whenever there was a vacancy, the aus- pices, the embodiment of sovereignty, returned to the patrician body, where they remained until a new magistrate, installed with the consent of the gods, was again the depositary of them. The Roman or patrician auspices, thus carefully and jealous- ly maintained, were,however, but the specially Roman develop- ment of the Italian system of augury. The plebeians had their auspices likewise, and the other Italian nations, different from the Roman, but no doubt analogous. They observed, for instance, different birds, and gave a different interpretation to the same sign. Individuals, too, could interpret for them- selves the signs that came in their path, and there were many other methods of ascertaining the future besides the flight of birds, the appearance of aflimals, and the path of the thunder- bolt. Another public oracle, the Sibylline Books, must riot be forgotten; but it will be treated of in another place. The haruspices, a low class of Etruscan soothsayers, who foretold by consulting the entrails of animals sacrificed, must be care- fully distinguished from the augurs, who were a body of states- men and gentlemen of the highest rank. The serpent oracle at Lanuvium has already been spoken of. Faunus, the good god of nature, was wont to whisper his secrets in dreams, or call them out to his worshippers, as is described in the seventh book of the .LEneid (v. 81). Sanctuaries of Fortuna were li1~e- wise frequented for this purpose. The most famous was at Pfa~- neste, where lots were drawn from a box. It has been surmised that the elegantly engraved boxes, peculiar to Pr~nestine art, were in some way connected with this oracle. Another was at Antium, celebrated by Horace in the thirty-fifth ode of the first book, 0 diva gratum quw regis Antium. Of the superstitions of the later Republic and the Empire I shall speak presently. 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient I?omans. 45 From the general religious conceptions we will pass to the consideration of the special objects of Roman worship, and the changes in their religious institutions and ideas. Probably there is no nation which illustrates the transformations of faith so well as the Romans: first, because in their case these trans- formations were very extensive and remarkable; secondly, be- cause we are unusually well informed in regard to them, and can trace them with great distinctness and accuracy. The primitive religion of the Romans consisted of two ele- ments, that which they inherited from their remote ances- try andy possessed in common with other Aryan peoples, and that which was developed for itself by the Italian race after its separation from the Greeks. To the first class, besides the general conceptions which have already been spoken of, be- longed the worship of Jupiter (ZEZI~ 7rar2p), Juno (zltovn), and Vesta (CEO.Tia), and perhaps nothing more. Even here the Romans had hardly more than the names in common with the Greeks; the conceptions and forms of worship were wholly their own. The other class, that of distinctively Italian deities, forms a peculiarly interesting group, one which is, h~wgver, not always easy to analyze. Many of these, whose warship was of great importance and popularity in the earliest times, were afterwards forgotten or cast in the shade by ~fre~k and other foreign divinities. For instance, it may fairl5~be claimed that any god who had a flctmen, or special priest~,held a toler- able rank at one time, although it would not necessarily follow that he had the highest rank. Now we do not possess the complete list of flamens, but we know that besides the three of chief rank, ~ those of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, and those of Vulcan, Flora, and Pomona, the gods of fire, flowers, and fruits, there were fiamens of the river god (Volturnus), the harbor god (Portunus), the goddess of the Palatine, the origi- nal seat of the city (Palatna), of Carmentis, a goddess of spells and song, and of Furina and Falacer pater, whose functions are not known. It was in the sacred grove of Furina, not of the furies, that Gains Gracehus was killed; Falacer pater is connected by llartungwith the Etruscan wordfalandum, heaven, as being therefore only another name or another form of Jupi- ter. This is all that is known, or conjectured, about these 46 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, two deities; but it is a fair inference that all these,even those who were quite insignificant or actually forgotten in after time, were leading gods in early ages. Besides these gods who dwindled or vanished in historical times, there were not a few who were insignificant at first, and acquired high importance afterwards by being identified with leading Greek deities (as Venus, Ceres, and Mercury), or whose attributes were entirely altered in this identification (as Liber pater and Saturn). For Saturn was originally only the god of sowing, and he had nothing in common with the Greek Kronos, except the tradition of great antiquity. It was related that he had reigned in the most distant periods of time, before Jupiter was known; but no original Italian myth made him the father of Jupiter. Jupiter, as the god of the heavens, was the chief god in early as in later times; and the vine, which depends so much upon the weather for its fruitfulness, was under his special charge. Bacchus was only a late importation from Greece, and Liber pater, with whom he was in after times identified, had origi- nally nothing to do with the vine or with drunkenness, but, with Libera, presided over the bearing of children. But if Jupiter was recognized as the greatest of all gods, Mars was the favorite object of worship, the national god, not only of the Romans, but of the Italian race as a whole; just as a Catholic people, without impugning the supremacy of Jehovah, will take St. James or St. IDenis as its special patron and pro- tector, and the object of its dearest affections. Mars, therefore, although the god of killing, was hardly the special god of war in early times. This character was merged and lost out of sight in that of the national god of a nation of shepherds and husbandmen; and he was pre-eminently re- garded as the divine champion of the burgesses, hurling the spear, protecting the flocks, and overthrowing the foe. (Mommsen, Book I. ch. 12.) Bellona, on the other hand, was the special impersonation of war. Mars, in this point of view, was grouped with Faunus, Picus, Silvanus, Pales, and other deities of nature; while as civic god of the old Roman city upon the Palatium, he was associated with Quirinus, his duplicate, the Mars of the hill city upon the Quirinal. 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Roman8. 47 Jupiter, then, the chief god of all, with Mars and Quirinus, the patron deities of the two cities, on the Palatine and the Quirinal, which were united together to form Rome, were the great triumvirate of early times. By the side of these there were worshipped Faunus, the good god of nature (in February), Terminus, of boundaries (also in February), Ceres, the goddess of growth, and Pales, of the flocks (in April), Neptune, of the sea (in July), Consus (from condo) and Ops, of the harvest (in August), Vulcan, of fire (in August), and Saturn, of sow- ing (in December). Add to these Janus, the god of opening, and Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, and we have, with the omission of some less important names, the original Roman pantheon. What is most striking in this is the number of purely Latin names of great importance in after times, which are wanting. At this time Juno was perhaps nothing but the tzurnen of women, the counterpart of the male genius; Minerva was only an indigitamentum, of memory; Diana, a leading Latin goddess, was hardly recognized in Rome; Venus was of quite subordinate importance; and Mercury was hardly known, if at all. The changes made in after time in the objects of worship may be referred to three heads, Italian influence, Greek in- fluence, and Oriental influence. For although the Romans were themselves a pure Italian people, and possessed those elements of faith which were common to the Italian race, yet each community, like Rome itself, had its special rites and divinities, many of which were, one after another, adopted by the Romans. Etruria has the credit of having supplied the Romans with many articles of faith; but the more is known of its people, the more barren its institutions appear. The Capitoline trio, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, whose worship marks the Tarquinian dynasty, is often referred to Etruria; but Varro expressly tells us (L. L. V. 158) that they had a chapel upon the Old Capitol (on the Quirinal) earlier than that upon the Capitoline. At any rate we have seen that Juno was a primitive Gr~co.Italian goddess, and was certainly known before this time, at least as the indwelling spirit of women. Minerva, too, is a purely Latin name (mens), and her worship was specially in the hands of the Nautian gens, 48 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, which was of Alban origin. Varro (L. L. V. T4) reckons her among the Sabine deities. It seems impossible, therefore, to say what religious movement was connected with the establish- ment of this trio. But whatever it may have been, these three, from this time, appear at the head of the Roman Olympus. The political bearing of the fact is suggested by Marquardts theory (Vol. V. p. 47), that this new institution was to form a religious centre for the now united state, corresponding with the important constitutional changes that took place at this epoch. As the patrician city had its Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, the plebeians had the temple of Diana on the Aven- tine. It was the work of the Tarquinian dynasty to unite these two elements into one; and with this work the founding of the new temple and worship may have been connected. At any rate, it is at this period that both temples were founded, that of Diana and that of the Capitoline Jove. To this period belongs, likewise, the commencement of the custom of having images of the gods, according to Varros statement (Aug. Civ. Dei. IV. 31) that the Romans worshipped the gods one hundred and seventy years without images. As to Diana herself, it is hard to determine her precise character, further than that she seems to have been a feminine form of Janus (Dianus). She had a renowned sanctuary at the Lake of Nemi, near Aricia, and it was probably from the similarity of her worship here to that of the Tauric Artemis that it came about that Diana was identified with Artemis. The Rex Nemorensis, or priest of Diana, held his place by the sword, by killing his predecessor in single combat; and he must maintain it in the same way, an exploit which none but runaway slaves undertook in later times. When the power of Rome grew, and she came to absorb all her neighbors into herself, many other local deities were in- corporated into the Roman system. The Penates at Lavinium and Fortuna at Pra3neste and Antium have been already spoken of. The Sibyl Albunea at Tibur, and the Dioscuri at Tusculum, belong rather to a later period. One of the most important of this class was Juno Sospita Mater Regina, who had a famous sanctuary at Lanuvium and lesser ones at Rome; it was in her temple that the serpent oracle described above 1871.] The Religion of tite Ancient .Roman8. 49 was found. This goddess has perhaps more reality to us than most of her class, from her mention in Ciceros oration against Milo, and from her peculiar statue in the Vatican, with shield and spear, clad in a goat-skin, with pointed shoes, and a serpent at her feet. Still another was the worship of Soranus on Mount Soracte, who, as a god of light, worshipped on the top of the mountain, was identified with Apollo, Sancti custos Soractis Apollo (Virg. iEn. XI. 785). But he was also identified with Dis Pater, god of the lower world, by reason of a sulphurous vapor which exhaled from a hole in the mountain-side, and of the peculiar rites with which he was worshipped, partly de- scribed by Virgil in the passage. cited. For once when the service was going on, wolves came and snatched the flesh of the sacrifices; and when the shepherds pursued, they were led to this cave, where the sulphurous exhalations were so strong as to kill those who came nearest. Then, as a punishment for pursuing the sacred animals, a pestilence broke out, which, as an oracle told them, could only be~ checked by the people themselves becoming wolves (Serv. A~n. xi. 785). From this they were called Hirpini (from hirpus, a wolf), just as tho\ Hirpinian Samnites had received their name from following the guidance of a wolf when they went off to find a new home. The wolf ceremony was, like the Roman Lupercalia (also from lupus, a wolf), a purifying one; they ran naked and unhurt through blazing fire at their annual festival. This rite is de- scribed by Strabo (V. 226) as occurring at the grove of Fero- nia, at the foot of the mountain, and there was undoubtedly a close connection in this place between the two divinities. But Soranus was merely a local deity, the god of the mountain Soracte, while Feronia was one of the most widely reverenced goddesses, whose worship is traced in many parts of Italy, from Verona in the North to Latium in the South, and the Vestinians in the East. She seems to have been a goddess of nature, like Flora, but in some way came to be especially con- nected with popular traffic. Her three principal groves at Soracte, at Anxur or Tarracina (ora manusque tua lcuimus, Feronia, 1yn~pka, br. Sat. I. 5, 24), and at Trebula Mutu- esca were all famous for the throng of traffickers from all VOL. cxIII.No. 232. 4 60 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, parts who gathered there; they were genuine fairs, where ped- lers and showmen resorted as they do nowadays to cattle- shows and camp-meetings. It was a disturbance at one of these fairs that led to the war of Tullus Hostilius with the Sabines (Liv. I. 80). It would be interesting to describe some others of the primi- tive rites of the IRomans, connected with their orloinal charac- ter as a farming and pasturing people; such as the worship of Dea Dia in May by the Arval Brothers, one of the oldest and most illustrious of the patrician sodalities, and which was kept up long into the Empire. Many inscriptions, illustrating their usages, have been discovered at their sanctuary, five miles from the city, where they still continue to be found from time to time. Then there was the procession to the grove of Rubigo (rust) in April, at which the Flamen of Quirinus offered the prayer recorded by Ovid (Fast. IV. 911), Harsh Rubigo, spare the growth of Ceres, and let the smooth top tremble above the ground. Let the crops, nourished by the favoring heavens, grow until they are ready for the sickle. The wor- ship of the Lares and Manes, too, would throw much light upon the religious notions of the people; the genius, or indwelling spirit of the man, took its place after death among the Kanes; the deified ancestors were Lares, while the spirits of the im- pious flitted from place to place, tormenting the wicked, and themselves finding no rest; these were Larva? and Lemures. The word Lares came to have a rather wide compass; and we find that Alexander Severus had images in his chapel, (lararium) of Abraham, Christ, Apollonius of Tyana, Orpheus and others, besides his ancestors. (A~ll. Lamp. Alex. Sev. 29.) But we must hasten on to the later developments of the Roman faith. The first great change wrought by foreign influence was in the direction of the Greek, partly in introducing new deities, partly in modifying the conceptions of the old. It was really a revolution to invest Jupiter, Mars, Minerva, and Neptune with the attributes of Zeus, Ares, Athene, and Poseidon, and to foist the whole Greek mythology, with its ideality and sen- suousness, upon the dry, earnest, pure theology of the Romans. Cicero and Cato did not believe that their gods had ever done 1871.] Tile Religion of tile Ancient Romans. 51 the acts that were ascribed to them; in the time of Camilus nobody could have believed it, because these were so wholly at variance with the national mode of thought. The influence that came from the later intercourse with Greece was not a legitimate and salutary one. It was not SophQcles or Socra- tes, not even Homer or Praxiteles, that introduced Grecian thought to the Romans; it was the dregs of philosophy, not divine philosophy, the fancies and seiisualities of art, when its spirit had disappeared, not the imaginative reason, that came in to help corrupt a people that was going to ruin fast enough by itself. This, however, belongs to a later stage of Greek influence. The early Greek influence was good, or at all events not bad. IFor some three hundred years we watch a succession of new gods and goddesses borrowed from Greece. In some cases they were plainly foreign deities, and the name as well as the religion is new. In others some Roman divinity was found, often of wholly subordinate rank, and raised at once to impor- tance and dignity by being clothed with all the attributes and associations of some one of the twelve great gods of Greece. To the first class belong Apollo, Hercules, Castor and Pollux, and IEsculapius; these are in every respect foreign, although Apollo was identified with Soranus, and Herculess shoulders were made to bear all the heroic traditions that had sprung up on Italian soil. There are as many of the second class. Diana has already been spoken of, and her resemblance to Artemis is enough to explain the identification of the two, especially in the fact that the Latin nymphs, the Vir~e, were peculiarly connected with her. Mercury again, originally hardly more than an indigitamenturn, or impersonation of the act of traffic, became Hermes, the messenger of the gods, the contriver, the god of eloquence, the conductor of the souls of the dead, merely by virtue of the one function that the two had in common. Venus, the abstraction of sensuous pleasure, and at the same time (in these simple rural days) a goddess of the garden, in the same way became Aphrodite. Still more important is the case of Ceres. She has been shown to have been one of the original nature-deities of the Romans, but her worship was simple and public. Whatever 52 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, sentiments of mystery were connected with the observation of nature were embodied in the worship of Bona Dea and per- haps Dea Dia and Dis pater (the god of the lower world). It was to one of these, then, that the Greek mysteries of Demeter, IDionysos, and Kore should have been attached. Instead of that, Ceres was taken, joined with Liber and Libera (an utterly incongruous combination), and made the centre of a new wor- ship, purely Greek, and conducted by Grecian priests, while at the same time the old festival of Ceres was kept up by the side of the new. The original Latin Ceres was now wholly overshadowed and obscured by her new functions as iDemeter; so that she appears from this time on as an essentially Greek divinity. The name of Proserpine, the goddess of the Indigita- menta, who causes the young plant to creep forth from the ground, has so close a resemblance to Persephone, the daughter of Demeter, that she too was made into a Grecian goddess, and joined with Pluto as queen of the lower world. It is Marquardts view that all these elements of Greek re- ligion were introduced by method, and as part of a system, of which the Sibylline books were the authority, the Quindecim- yin sacris faciundis the managers; that is, that the purchase of the Sibylline books marks distinctly a new era in the Roman religion, and that the two systems went on side by side, the Pontifices at the head of the native system, the Quindecimviri of the foreign. It is certain that the Sibylline books were of Greek origin, and that in most cases of the introduction of Greek rites it is explicitly stated that it was done by the direc- tion of these books. One feature of the new system was the lectisternia, or festivals at which the statues of the gods were placed on couches at tables spread with a banquet. The Greek forms of worship mentioned above were all estab- lished at Rome before the Second Punic War. Although they were essentially foreign, and in some cases in the hands of foreign priests, yet there was nothing in them (apart from the myths) really inconsistent with Roman ideas, and they were kept well in control by the authorities of the state. With the Second Punic War, when that baleful Greek influence de- scribed above began to be powerfully felt, commences a new series of foreign rites of a new character, attended by the most 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 53 disastrous consequences. In the case of Apollo, Diana, Ceres, .A~sculapius, and even Veiius, there had been new ceremonies and at worst mysteries; with the arrival of Cybele, the Great Mother, begins a period of orgies and debasing superstitions. The circumstances attending the introduction of this worship are too well known to need repetition; but it cannot be made too plain, what a contrast this frenzied Oriental worship, with its bloody symbolism, its begging priests, its wild dances, and its trumpets and cymbals, made to the old Roman and even the earlier Greek rites. We can well understai~d how sus- piciously these narrow-minded but clear-sighted senators must have stood aloof from it. But this was only a beginning. Soon after followed the rites of Bacchus, private in origin and cele- bration, even more wild, orgiastic, and indecent. The Senate did its best to check the growth of these practices, but it was too late. Already the simple, pure, formal, strictly national religion of Rome was dead, and there was nothing for it but superstitions and philosophies. In saying that the Roman religion gave way to superstition and philosophy, it must be remarked that this was a natural transformation, and in certain aspects a salutary one. The nature-religion of the Greeks and Romans was in its essence capable of only a very limited development; that of the Romans was peculiarly narrow and inelastic. It was essentially a state religion, well adapted, in its formality and strictness, to a peo- ple whose whole individuality was merged in that of the state. And whatever elements of worship were popular and spon- taneous in their origin and character were pure outgrowths of that simple, unimaginative observation of nature and deification of its powers, which were natural to the Italian people. As the character of the nation developed, its religion was trans- formed by successive stages. The first of these has already been traced. It is connected with the sway of the Tarquinian dynasty, when Rome first became conscious of her destiny, and from being a single Latin city assumed the dignity of a state. This individual member of the Latin confederacy is now found not merely in possession of the hegemony in. Latium, but in a relation of equal alliance on the one side with this confederacy on the other. At this same time the political institutions 54 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, expanded, and the patriarchal patrician organization began to be superseded by the principle of territorial nationality. With this political revolution there was naturally connected a relig- ious one, which has been already described as consisting in the establishment of the supreme Capitoline triad, and in the in- troduction of Greek rites and forms of faith, through the Sibylline books. Now these changes, it must be remembered, were not at all hostile to Roman nationality. They were, in truth, an expansion of it. The purity of the nationality was no- ways impaired, but went on manifesting itself with more and more vigor for centuries. Whatever the Romans borrowed at this time either remained completely exotic, under the charge of Greek priests, or was completely assimilated, so as to be- come an integral part of the Roman faith. With the Punic Wars comes in a new stage of growth, when the Roman people ceased to be purely Roman and became cos- mopolitan. The change was one in capacity as well as in modes of thought. The early Roman had no needs or aspira- tions which his native religion could not satisfy. His calm, rigid spirit was not disturbed by doubts and anxieties as to the future, or tormented by the perplexing problems of older states of society, or attracted by the enthusiasms and orgiastic rites of more excitable peoples. With the conquest of the world all this was changed. It was partly that new elements of popula- tion flowed from all quarters into the capital of the world, partly that the Romans themselves had a wider field of view opened before them, and were more powerfully influenced by the thoughts and usages with which they were brought in con- tact. With their old narrowness and formalism they lost, it is true, their old simplicity and purity, but they gained in insight and impressibility. Matthew Arnold speaks of the pagans of this time as people who seem never made to be serious, never made to be sick or sorry. But this view is one.sided. They were sick and sorry, they did feel those longings and aspira- tions which are so characteristic of modern times; and these puerile, fanatical, and often disgusting superstitions, which mark the downfall of the ancient faith, are only the indications of a demand for, and a seeking after, something higher and better. 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 55 The old Roman religion could not satisfy the new needs and longings of this new Roman people, because it had neither elasticity nor sympathetic power. It fell short as well of the intellectual demands of the time. It was abandoned, there- fore, both by the masses, who were ready to believe, but needed some more vital faith, and by the cultivated, who had ceased to believe. The one class had recourse to superstitions, the other to philosophies. Three schools of philosophy gained a strong foothold among the cultivated classes of Romans, the Epicurean, with those who rejected all intervention of the gods in human affairs, the Stoic, with the more earnest and devout believers in a divine providence; while the Academic school afforded intellectual discipline and interest to those who thought the whole subject beyond the scope of our intelligence. With the Epicureans associated itself all that was contaminat- ing and destructive to morals and society; the Stoics quickly \ identified themselves with whatever survived that was noble and heroic, and we owe to them some of the most striking ex- amples of devoted patriotism and disinterested virtue that his- tory contains. To this period belongs Euhemerism, that school of philosophizing which considered the gods to be nothing but deified men. With all this the established religion fell into neglect. It is true that much of it preserved a certain popularity and respect by becoming identified with Greek fable. The Greek mythology satisfied some of the new longings of the community, those which were repelled by the formality and sterility of the old wor- ship; and some of the Roman gods, invested with new attributes, and made the heroes of adventures and exploits that their early worshippers never dreamed of, were still the objects of reverence. But whatever was distinctly Roman rapidly disap- peared, with the exception of rites which, like the Lupercalia and the festival of Bona Dea, were in a degree fitted to satisfy the new needs. Names of gods were forgotten, temples fell into decay; consecrated places were filled with rubbish and filth, the most honored priesthoods were left vacant, holy times were neglected, and sacred observances were despised. Even Cato the Censor wondered that one haruspex could look another in the face without laughing; but this belonged to the 66 Tke Religion of tAe Ancient Romans. [July, age, not to Rome alone; for Hannibal indignantly asked King Prusias, when he refused to fight, because the sacrifices were not favorable, whether he would rather put trust in a bit; of veal than in an experienced commander. C~sar indeed does not appear once in his whole career to have consulted the sacrifices. With the Empire came in a temporary reaction. Augustus, conservative in all things, was especially so in religion, and from him dates a restoration of the old temples and a more zealous observance of the old rites. So far as the state was concerned, the decay of the Roman faith was arrested. At the same time the new r6gime was inaugurated by new observances, significantly connected with the Empire and the Julian dynasty. Sacrifices were offered thrice in the year to Peace, temples erected to Mars Ultor (the avenger of Julius), and Venus Genitrix (the mother of the race); and Augustus even aimed to make Apollo, rather than Mars, the special deity of his city. Meantime, while the old religion was neglected, and the higher classes were sedulously cultivating philosophy, the masses had taken refuge in Oriental superstitions. As the earlier epoch, that of the Tarquins, had received its character from Greece, this later one was influenced by Asia, the early source of religious inspiration to the Greeks, as well as the cradle of the later Christianity. It is not necessary wholly to despise the frantic rites of Cybele, or even those of Bacchus. They were perverted, as emotional religious observances are always in danger of being, as were those of Bona Dea her- self, to an instrument of corruption and licentiousness. But unquestionably at their introduction they did satisfy a human want for which the hereditary religion made no provision. If Catholicism finds its purest expression in the ecstasies of St. Francis, if the most successful Protestant denominations stimulate the wild excitements of revivals and camp-meetings, we need not criticise the ancients too severely that they fed their religious cravings with fanaticisms, many of which dif- fered from those of modern times rather in the object of the worship than in the forms and spirit. It was the best they could do. I am not concerned here to speak of the abomina- tions to which they led, no more revolting than were attrib 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 57 uted to the religious organization of the Knights Templars, or than are known of the Anabaptists of Miinster. I care rather for what is true in these superstitions than for what is false. In a religious aspect we are already at the transition period which divides the ancient pagan world from the modern Chris- tian world. The Greek and the Roman religion had each run its course, and Asia was now called in to contribute the vital element which they lacked. The worship of Cybele, of Isis and Sarapis, and of Mithras, attempted to give to humanity, although in an ignoble and distorted form, precisely those truths which Christianity brought home to the heart of men, immortality, and the unity of the godhead. And if Chris- tendom borrowed some of her most sacred institutions from the earliest Roman forms, if the Roman Catholic ritual and ceremonial are in many respects only the ancient Roman ones over again, and the festivals of the Church have many of them come straight down from republican times, yet these are but matters of form. In more essential spiritual points we find a frequent parallelism between the accepted doctrines of Chris- tianity and that mixture of Roman and Oriental religion which had sway in the later Republic and the early Empire. In the article upon the religion of the Greeks, already re- ferred to, I pointed out the connection of the myths of Per- sephone, Adonis, and Osiris with the death of the year, and its revivification in spring, and showed how these myths became the symbol and expression of the idea of immortality. The Romans had hardly anything in their primitive religion which could be made use of for this purpose; or, rather, it would be more correct to say, they did not possess the creative imagina- tion which would develop their simple ideas into a sympathetic faith. Even when they introduced from Greece the combined worship of Ceres, Liber, and Libera, and the Eleusinian mys- teries along with it, it was left wholly to Greek priests, and would appear to have soon become wholly formal and lifeless. The worship of Cybele, introduced at the time of the Second Punic War, assumed a more popular and enthusiastic character, although even this failed to be fully developed until the time of the Empire, when the rites of the Great Mother became still more orgiastic, and were made the expression of a lively 58 The Religion of the Ancient Romans. [July, religious enthusiasm. In its essential features the new March festival of the Great Mother bore many resemblances to Easter. It was at just the same time of the year, when the day at last gets victory over the night, and the new spring rises to life frorti its long sleep. The festival lasted several days, chief among them being one of mourning and fasting, to which fob lowed, on the 25th of March, a day of joy, when the dead Attis was raised to life from the grave. The same idea was expressed in the Egyptian religion of Isis, which was one of the most popular in Rome at the time of the Christian era. The death of Osiris at the hands of his enemy Typhon was like the abduction of Persephone by the god of the lower world; the sad search by Isis for her lost husband was that of Demeter for her daughter; and when the lost one was found at last, the worshippers broke out in shouts of joy, We have found him; we rejoice with thee! In this Egyptian myth, as transformed by the Alexandrian Greeks, Osiris became Sarapis, who lived on as king of the lower world, a somewhat different phase of the belief in immortality from that which is seen in the worship of Cybele. In the worship of Isis we mark for the first time a tendency to give personality and a name to that supreme deity, ~ ~r~v ~Xov xoojiov uvv-rar- rcov, whom so many philosophers and thinkers had already recognized. Thou, goddess Isis, who alone art all things, says an inscription; and her enthusiastic votaries claimed for this goddess that she was in truth the supreme divinity. We must not make the mistake, however, of recognizing in a supreme divinity such as this the strict idea of one God, like the Jewish Jehovah. Polytheism does not differ from mono- theism in the accident of number alone, but in the very con- ception of the divine nature. By deus the Romans meant only a supernatural being, who could help or harm men, and who might be an object of reverence; what we understand by a spirit. Thus the spirits of the departed were dii manes; that is, when the genius, or indwelling spirit of a man, passed from his body, it became a god. Primarily there is no necessary inequality among these spirits, only a difference of function; and it was the greater or less importance and extent of these functions, or the accident of local worship, that gave one god 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. 59 a higher position in rank and power than another. Thus Jupi.. ter, the god of the sky, whose powers had so wide a sway, and whose sphere embraced that of all others, naturally became the chief god, both with Greeks and Romans; while Mars, from the accident of his being the special god of the Italian race, held a much higher position than his Greek counterpart Ares. But Jupiter was only the strongest of the gods; he was not God, in the monotheistic view. When the Greek and Roman philosophers spoke of a divine power which was really supreme in the universe, they rarely called it Zeus or Jupiter, but Fate, or Necessity, or simply God. On the other hand, Monotheism is not at all incompatible with a multitude of divine beings, such as the Romans would have called dei. The Jews had their angels, the Catholic Church has its saints, even Protestants hold fast to the exist-. ence of angels, devils, ghosts, and witches. The difference between monotheism and polytheism, says Hartung, lies noways in the number of supernatural beings, but in the re- lation of this plurality to the unity; . . . . in the former necessity has given way to freedom, in the latter freedom is confined under necessity ; that is, the heathen gods have necessity over them, not in them; under it they act after their wills, endowed with like conditions but higher powers than men, so that Jupiter was only the first among equals. The symbolism of the myth of Isis and Osiris the same as that of Demeter and Persephone, Cybele and Attis, Aphro- dite and Adonis is the deepest and tenderest in the whole range of mythology; and the truth of immortality expressed in it is one of the dearest to the human heart. Probably there was something in the Egyptian costume and ritual that took a peculiar hold of whatever was sensitive in the Roman people, and at any rate this worship seemed to them to embody all the results of the centuries of Egyptian wisdom and learning. However that may be, it was the popular religion in the early Empire, and Isis and her husband under his new name Sarapis not unnaturally gathered about them most of the enthusiastic and sympathetic elements of faith. With him were identified all the highest attributes of deity, with her all the womanly qualities, like the Virgin Mary in the Catholic sys 60 The Religion of the Ancient Romczn8. [July, tern; their devotees went so far as to claim that all the chief gods and goddesses of various nations those who might themselves have been called the sole God were only these under other names and in a different form. This was not pure monotheism, but rather an effort to raise one out of the pan- theon to a higher rank than the rest, by removing his rivals. On the other hand, it was a step towards monotheism, and satisfied the monotheistic cravings, so far as they consciously existed at that time. It has been already said that this was a transitional period, when beliefs were being transformed, and rites from all parts of the earth were brought together and compared. In consistency with this, the conception of a chief god was no longer the polytheistic one; at the same time it was not yet clearly monotheistic. The dynasty of the Seven, which formed so important an epoch in the political development of the Empire, was an almost equally important one in religious matters. It marks a new irruption of Asiatic superstitions, chiefly embodied in the wor- ship of the Sun, under his Syrian name Elagabalus and the Persian name Mithras. With the Unconquerable Sun, Sot invictus, was associated a still higher form of the growing monotheistic conception than that of Isis and Sarapis. The worship of Mithras, with its strange and bloody symbolism, and its claims to represent the unity of the godhead, was zealously prosecuted even after Christianity had become the state religion. Heathenism, in its expiring form, assumed all the attributes and claims of the victorious faith which it could, and thus for a while held its ground ~tgainst it. To this period belong especially the fastings, expiations, and cleansing rites which form a link between the pagan religion and medheval Christianity. The most striking of them was the Taurobolion, or baptism in the blood of a bull (other animals were also used), which was connected especially with the March festival of the Magna Mater. It was a striking illustration, however, of the growing unity of faith, that this ceremony was not peculiar to any one worship, but was associated with all the forms of orgiastic religion of th~ time. Lastly, a word must be said upon the worship of the Em- peror. This has been a strange puzzle to many moderns, bu~ 61 1871.] The Religion of the Ancient Romans. was in reality not merely a direct outgrowth of the ancient re- ligious conceptions, but a very striking and immediate link between them and those of the modern world. It was not the man Augustus or Trajan that was worshipped, but the divine spirit, the genius, which dwelt in them and inspired the great actions of their life. If this genius became a god at the death of the poorest and meanest, and was added to the dii manes, how much more in the case of great and beneficent sovereigns? The apotheosis of an emperor after his death, even the wor- ship of his genius during his life, was neither irrational nor illogical, when once we understand the ancient conception of the divine nature. That the same honors were bestowed upon a Nero and Caracalla may have been fear or flattery; it was, at any rate, an outgrowth of the same mode of thought. But we need not go to the ancients for an analogy. The modern world is perfectly familiar with the spectacle of a man of ordinary powers and passions invested, by the election of a body of men, with a peculiar holiness and sanctity, so that it is con- ceived that when he speaks it is God that speaks through him. No one believes that it is in the man Gregory or Leo that this divinity consists, but that in some way a divine nature has been added to his human nature, by a direct and special act of the Almighty. Now the Pope is as much a god, in the eyes of his followers, as a Roman Emperor ever was; that is, not at all, according to the modern definition of the word god. The appointment to the imperial dignity was, on the average, hardly more irregular, in respect to fraud, violence, and corruption, than that to the Papacy during a great part of its history; and any one who believes that John XII. and Alexander VI. were clothed with these holy attributes and powers, by virtue of the post they held as Christs vicegerent on earth, need not find any difficulty in seeing how the Roman people could believe that Caligula and Commodus were invested with a similar sanctity by virtue of holding a post which in that time and for that people was the highest and most important that could be conceived of. My aim in this paper has been, first, to point out the essen- tial and distinctive features of the primitive religion of the Romans, and to show how important its study is in the com 62 TAe Religion of tAe Ancient Romans. [July, parative view of religions; secondly, to show that its over- throw in the later Republic was a necessary development, and that the superstitions which took its place were not merely the best and only substitute they had, but did actually satisfy some of the most earnest cravings of the human heart. The cor- ruptions they underwent were quite as much the result as the cause of the corruptions of society. Of the works whose titles are placed at the head of the arti- cle, that of Preller is, on the whole, the most complete and satis- factory for the use of the student. Hartung is a writer of more originality, and far more suggestive and instructive for the philosophy of the subject. Zumpts little treatise contains some excellent points, but it was a popular address, and makes no pretensions to fulness. Marquardts work is admirably clear and copious in citation, like all his writings; but it is partial, being purely the antiquities of worship, rather than the religious system as such. Prellers treatise, being later than Hartungs and more extensive, contains material which Hartung has passed over; so that, while quite inferior in in- sight and suggestiveness, it is superior in arrangement and completeness. WILLIAM F. ALLEN. 1871.] The qenesis of Species. 63 ART. III. 1. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selec- twn. By ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE. London and New York: Macmillan & Co. 1870. 8vo. pp. 384. 2. On the Genesis of Species. By ST. GEORGE MIVART, F. R. S. London and New York: Macmillan & Co. 1871. Svn. pp. 314. 3. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. By CHARLES DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S., etc. In two volumes. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1871. 8vo. pp. 409 and 436. 4. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. By CHARLES DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S., etc. Fifth Edition, with Additions and Corrections. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1871. 8vo. pp. 447. IT is now nearly twelve years since the discussion of that mystery of mysteries, the origin of species, was reopened by the publication of the first edition of Mr. Darwins most re- markable work. Again and again in the history of scientific debate this question had beendiscussed,and,afterexcitinga short-lived interest, had been condemned by cautious and con- servative thinkers to the limbo of insoluble problems or to the realm of religious mystery. They had, therefore, sufficient grounds, a priori, for anticipating that a similar fate would attend this new revival of the question, and that, in a few years, no more would be heard of the matter; that the same condemnation awaited this movement which had overwhelmed the venturesome speculations of Lamarck and of the author of the Vestiges of Creation. This not unnatural anticipation has been, however, most signally disappointed. Every year has increased the interest felt in the question, and at the present moment the list of publications which we place at the head of this article testifies to the firm hold which the subject has acquired in this short period on the speculative interests of all inquisitive minds. But what can we say has really been accomplished by this debate; and what reasons have we for believing that the judgment of conservative thinkers will not,

1871.] The qenesis of Species. 63 ART. III. 1. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selec- twn. By ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE. London and New York: Macmillan & Co. 1870. 8vo. pp. 384. 2. On the Genesis of Species. By ST. GEORGE MIVART, F. R. S. London and New York: Macmillan & Co. 1871. Svn. pp. 314. 3. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. By CHARLES DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S., etc. In two volumes. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1871. 8vo. pp. 409 and 436. 4. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. By CHARLES DARWIN, M. A., F. R. S., etc. Fifth Edition, with Additions and Corrections. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1871. 8vo. pp. 447. IT is now nearly twelve years since the discussion of that mystery of mysteries, the origin of species, was reopened by the publication of the first edition of Mr. Darwins most re- markable work. Again and again in the history of scientific debate this question had beendiscussed,and,afterexcitinga short-lived interest, had been condemned by cautious and con- servative thinkers to the limbo of insoluble problems or to the realm of religious mystery. They had, therefore, sufficient grounds, a priori, for anticipating that a similar fate would attend this new revival of the question, and that, in a few years, no more would be heard of the matter; that the same condemnation awaited this movement which had overwhelmed the venturesome speculations of Lamarck and of the author of the Vestiges of Creation. This not unnatural anticipation has been, however, most signally disappointed. Every year has increased the interest felt in the question, and at the present moment the list of publications which we place at the head of this article testifies to the firm hold which the subject has acquired in this short period on the speculative interests of all inquisitive minds. But what can we say has really been accomplished by this debate; and what reasons have we for believing that the judgment of conservative thinkers will not, 64 The aenesis of Species. [July, in the main, be proved right after all, though present indica- tions are against them? One permanent consequence, at least, will remain, in the great additions to our knowledge of natural history, and of general physiology, or theoretical biology, which the discussion has produced; though the greater part of this positive contribution to science is still to be credited directly to Mr. Darwin~ s works, and even to his original researches. But, besides this, an advantage has been gained which cannot be too highly estimated. Orthodoxy has been won over to the doctrine of evolution. In asserting this result, however, we are obliged to make what will appear to many persons impor- tant qualifications and explanations. We do not mean that the heads of leading religious bodies, even in the most enlight- ened communities, are yet willing to withdraw the dogma that the origin of species is a special religious mystery, or even to assent to the hypothesis of evolution as a legitimate question for scientific inquiry. We mean only, that many eminent stu- dents of science, who claim to be orthodox, and who are cer- tainly actuated as much by a spirit of reverence as by scientific inquisitiveness, have found means of reconciling the general doctrine of evolution with the dogmas they regard as essential to religion. Even to those whose interest in the question is mainly scientific this result is a welcome one, as opening the way for a freer discussion of subordinate questions, less tram- melled by the religious prejudices which have so often been serious obstacles to the progress of scientific researches. But again, in congratulating ourselves on this result, we are obliged to limit it to the doctrine of evolution in its most gen~ eral form, the theory common to Lamarcks zo~ilogical philos- ophy, to the views of the author of the Vestiges of Creation, to the general conclusions of Mr. Darwins and Mr. Wallaces theory of Natural Selection, to Mr. Spencers general doctrine of evolution, and to a number of minor explanations of the processes by which races of animals and plants have been de- rived by descent from different ancestral forms. What is no longer regarded with suspicion as secretly hostile to religious beliefs by many truly religious thinkers is that which is denoted in common by the various names transmutation, develop- ment, derivation, evolution, and descent with modifi 1871.] The Genesis of Species. 65 cation. These terms are synonymous in their primary and general signification, but refer secondarily to various hypoth- eses of the processes of derivation. But there is a choice among them on historical grounds, and with reference to as- sociations, which are of some importance from a theological point of view. Transmutation and development are under ban. Derivation is, perhaps, the most innocent word; though evolution will probably prevail, since, spite of its etymological implication, it has lately become most acceptable, not only to the theological critics of the theory, but to its scientific advocates; although, from the neutral ground of experimental science, descent with modification~~ is the most pertinent and least exceptionable name. While the general doctrine of evolution has thus been suc- cessfully redeemed from theological condemnation, this is not yet true of the subordinate hypothesis of Natural Selection, to the partial success of which this change of opinion is, in great measure, due. It is, at first sight, a paradox that the views most peculiar to the eminent naturalist, whose work has been chiefly instrumental in effecting this change of opinion, should still be rejected or regarded with suspicion by those who have nevertheless been led by him to adopt the general hypothesis, an hypothesis which his explanations have done so much to render credible. It would seem, at first sight, that Mr. Dar- win has won a victory, not for himself, but for Lamarck. Transmutation, it would seem, has been accepted, but Natural Selection, its explanation, is still rejected by many converts to the general theory, both on religious and scientific grounds. But too much weight might easily be attributed to the deduc- tive or explanatory part of the evidence, on which the doctrine of evolution has come to rest. In the half-century preceding the publication of the Origin of Species, inductive evidence on the subject has accumulated, greatly outweighing all that was previously known; and the Origin of Species is not less remarkable as a compend and discussion of this evidence than for the ingenuity of its explanations. It is not, therefore, to what is now known as Darwinism that the prevalence of the doctrine of evolution is to be attributed, or only indirectly. Still, most of this effect is due to Mr. Darwins work, and some VOL. CXIII.NO. 232. 5 66 T1~e aene8is of Spedes. [July, thing undoubtedly to the indirect influence of reasonings that are regarded with distrust by those who accept their con- clusions; for opinions are contagious, even where their reasons are resisted. The most effective general criticism of the theory of Natural Selection which has yet appeared, or one which, at least, is likely to exert the greatest influence in overcoming the remain- ing prejudice against the general doctrine of evolution, is the work of Mr. St. George Mivart On the Genesis of Species. Though, as we shall show in the course of this article, the work falls far short of what we might have expected from an author of Mr. Mivarts attainments as a naturalist, yet his position be- fore the religious world, and his unquestionable familiarity with the theological bearings of his subject, will undoubtedly gain for him and for the doctrine of evolution a hearing and a credit, which the mere student of science might be denied. His work is mainly a critique of Darwinism ; that is, of the theories peculiar to Mr. Darwin and the Darwinians, as distinguished from the believers in the general doctrine of evolution which our author accepts. He also puts forward an hypothesis in opposition to Mr. Darwins doctrine of the predominant influ- ence of Natural Selection in the generation of organic species, and their relation to the conditions of their existence. On this hypothesis, called Specific Genesis, an organism, though at any one time a fixed and determinate species, approximately adapted to surrounding conditions of existence, is potentially, and by innate potential combinations of organs and faculties, adapted to many other conditions of existence. It passes, ac- cording to the hypothesis, from one form to another of specific manifestation, abruptly and discontinuously in conformity to the emergencies of its outward life; but in any condition to which it is tolerably adapted it retains a stable form, subject to variation only within determinate limits, like oscillations in a stable equilibrium. For this conception our author is indebted to INfr. Galton, who, in his work on Hereditary Genius, compares the development of species with a many-faceted spheroid tumbling over from one facet or stable equilibrium to another. The existence of internal conditions in animals, Mr. Mivart adds (p. 111), corresponding with such facets is 1871.] The Gene8is of Specie8. denied by pure Darwinians, but it is contended in this work that something may also be said for their existence. There are many facts of variation, numerous cases of abrupt changes in individuals both of natural and domesticated species, which, of course, no Darwinian or physiologist denies, and of which Natural Selection professes to offer no direct explanation. The causes of these phenomena, and their relations to external con- ditions of existence, are matters quite independent of the prin- ciple of Natural Selection, except so far as they may directly affect the animals or plants well-being, with the origin of which this principle is alone concerned. General physiology has classified some of these sudden variations under such names as reversion and atavism, or returns more or less com- plete to ancestral forms. Others have been connected together under the law of correlated or concomitant variations, changes that, when they take place, though not known to be physically dependent on each other, yet usually or often occur to- gether. Some cases of this law have been referred to the higher, more fundamental laws of homological variations, or variations occurring together on account of the relationships of homology, or due to similarities and physical relations between parts of organisms, in tissues, organic connections, and modes of growth. Other variations are explained by the laws and causes that de.~ termine monstrous growths. Others again are quite inexplica~ ble as yet, or cannot yet be referred to any general law or any known antecedents. These comprise, indeed, the most com- mon cases. The almost universal prevalence of well-marked phenomena of variation in species, the absolutely universal fact that no two individual organisms are exactly alike, and that the description of a species is necessarily abstract and in many respects by means of averages, these facts have received no particular explanations, and might indeed be taken as ultimate facts or highest laws in themselves, were it not that in biological speculations such art assumption would be likely to be misun- derstood, as denying the existence of any real determining causes and more ultimate laws, as well as denying any known antecedents or regularities in such phenomena. No physical naturalist would for a moment be liable to such a inisunder- standing, but would, on the contrary, be more likely to be off 68 The qene8is of Specie8. [July, his guard against the possibility of it in minds otherwise trained and habituated to a different kind of studies. Mr. Darwin has undoubtedly erred in this respect. He has not in his works repeated with sufficient frequency his faith in the universality of the law of causation, in the phenomena of general physiology or theoretical biology, as well as in all the rest of physical nature. He has not said often enough, it would appear, that in referring any effect to accident, he only means that its causes are like particular phases of the weather, or like innu- merable phenomena in the concrete course of nature generally, which are quite beyond the power of finite minds to anticipate or to account for in detail, though none the less really deter- minate or due to regular causes. That he has committed this error appears from the fact that his critic, Mr Mivart, has made the mistake, which nullifies nearly the whole of his criti- cism, of supposing that the theory of Natural Selection may (though it need not) be taken in such a way as to lead men to regard the present organic world as formed, so to speak, accidentally, ~beautiful and wonderful as is confessedly the hap-hazard result (p. 33). Mr. Mivart, like many another writer, seems to forget the age of the world in which he lives and for which he writes, the age of experimental philos- ophy, the very stand-point of which, its fundamental assump- tion, is the universality of physical causation. This is so familiar to minds bred in physical studies, that they rarely imagine that they may be mistaken for disciples of Democritus, or for believers in the fortuitous concourse of atoms, in the sense, at least, which theology has attached to this phrase. If they assent to the truth that may have been meant by the phrase, they would not for a moment suppose that the atoms move fortuitously, but only that their conjunctions, constituting the actual concrete orders of events, could not be anticipated except by a knowledge of the natures and regular histories of each and all of them, such knowledge as belongs only to omniscience. The very hope of experimental philosophy, its expectation of constructing the sciences into a true philosophy of nature, is based on the induction, or, if you please, the a pri- on presumption, that physical causation is universal; that the constitution of nature is written in its actual manifestations, 1871.] TAe aene8is of Specie8. 69 and needs only to be deciphered by experimental and inductive research; that it is not a latent invisible writing, to be brought out by the magic of mental anticipation or metaphysical medi- tation. Or, as~ Bacon said, it is not by the anticipations of the mind, but by the interpretation of nature, that natural philosophy is to be constituted; and this is to presume that the order of nature is decipherable, or that causation is every- where either manifest or hidden, but never absent. Mr. Mivart does not wholly reject the process of Natural Selection, or disallow it as a real cause in nature, but he re- duces it to a subordinate r~3le in his view of the derivation of species. It serves to perfect the imperfect adaptations and to meet within certain limits unfavorable changes in the condi- tions of existence. The accidents which Natural Selection acts upon are allowed to serve in a subordinate capacity and in subjection to a foreordained, particular, divine order, or to act like other agencies dependent on an evil principle, which are compelled to turn evil into good. Indeed, the only differ- ence on purely scientific grounds, and irrespective of theological considerations, between Mr. Mivarts views and Mr. Darwhls is in regard to the extent to which the process of Natural Selec- tion has been effective in the modifications of species. Mr. Darwin himself, from the very nature of the process, has never supposed for it, as a cause, any other than a co-ordinate place among other causes of change, though he attributes to it a su- perintendent, directive, and controlling agency among them. The student of the theory would gather quite a different impres- sion of the theory from Mr. Mivarts account of it, which attrib- utes to Darwinians the absurd conception of this cause as acting alone to produce the changes and stabilities of species; whereas, from the very nature of the process, other causes of change, whether of a known or as yet unknown nature, are presupposed by it. Even Mr. Galtons and our authors hypo- thetical facets, or internal conditions of abrupt changes and successions of stable equilibriums, might be among these causes, if there were any good inductive grounds for supposing their existence. Reversional and correlated variations are, indeed, due to such internal conditions and to laws of inheritance, which have been ascertained inductively as at least laws of 70 The & ~ene8is of Speczes. [July, phenomena, but of which the causes, or the antecedent conditions in the organism, are unknown. Mr. Darwin continually refers to variations as arising from unknown causes, but these are always such, so far as observation can determine their relations to the organisms conditions of existence, that they are far from accounting for, or bearing any relations to, the adaptive characters of the organism. It is solely upon and with refer- ence to such adaptive characters that the process of Natural Selection has any agency, or could be supposed to be effective. If Mr. Mivart had cited anywhere in his book, as he has not, even a single instance of sudden variation in a whole race, either in a state of nature or under domestication, which is not referable by known physiological laws to the past history of the race on the theory of evolution, and had further shown that such a variation was an adaptive one, he might have weakened the arguments for the agency and extent of the process of Nat- ural Selection. As it is, he has left them quite intact. The only direct proofs which he adduces for his theory that adaptive as well as other combinations proceed from innate pre- determinations wholly within the organism, are drawn from, or rather assumed in, a supposed analogy of the specific forms in organisms to those of crystals. As under different circum- stances or in different media the same chemical substances or constituent substances assume different and distinct crystalline forms, so, he supposes, organisms are distinct manifestations of typical forms, one after another of which will appear under various external conditions. He quotes from Mr. J. J. Mur- phy, Habit and Intelligence, that, it needs no proof that in the case of spheres and crystals, the forms and structures are the effect and not the cause of the formative principle. At- traction, whether gravitative or capillary, produces the spher- ical form; the spherical form does not produce attraction. And crystalline polarities produce crystalline structure and form; crystalline structure and form do not produce polarities. And, by analogy, Mr. Murphy and our author infer that innate vital forces always produce specific vital forms, and that the vital forms themselves, or accidental variations of them, cannot modify the types of action in vital force. Now, al- though Mr. Murphys propositions may need no proof, they 1871.] The Gene8i8 of Syecie8. 71 will bear correction; and, clear as they appear to be, a better interpretation of the physical facts is needed for the purposes of tracing out analogy and avoiding paralogism. Strange as it may seem, Mr. Murphys clear antitheses are not even partially true. No abstraction ever produced any other abstraction, much less a concrete thing. The abstract laws of attraction never produced any body, spherical or polyhedral. It was actual forces acting in definite ways that made the sphere or crystal; and the sizes, particular shapes, and positions of these bodies determined in part the action of these actual forces. It is the resultants of many actual attractions, dependent in turn on the actual products, that determine the spherical or crystal- line forms. Moreover, in the case of crystals, neither these forces nor the abstract law of their action in producing definite angles reside in the finished bodies, but in the properties of the surrounding media, portions of whose constituents are changed into crystals, according to these properties and to other conditioning circumstances. So far as these bodies have any innate principle in them concerned in their own produc- tion, it is manifested in determining, not their general agree- ments, but their particular differences in sizes, shapes, and positions. The particular position of a crystal that grows from some fixed base or nucleus, and the particular directions of its faces, may, perhaps, be said to be innate; that is, they were determined at the beginning of the particular crystals growth. Finding, therefore, what Mr. Murphy and Mr. Mivart suppose to be innate to be really in the outward conditions of the crys- tals growth, and what they would suppose to be superinduced to be all that is innate in it, we have really found the contrast in place of an analogy between a crystal and an organism. For, in organisms, no doubt, and as we may be readily con- vinced without resort to analogy, there is a great deal that is really innate, or dependent on actions in the organism, which diversities of external conditions modify very little, or affect at least in a very indeterminate manner, so far as observation has yet ascertained. External conditions are, nevertheless, essen- tial factors in development, as well as in mere increase or growth. No animal or plant is developed, nor do its develop- ments acquire any growth without very special external condi 72 The aenesis of Species. [July, tions. These are quite as essential to the production of air organism as a crystalline nucleus and fluid material are to the growth and particular form of a crystal; and as the general resemblances of the crystals of any species, the agreements in their angles, are results of the physical properties of their food and other surrounding conditions of their growth, so the gen- eral resemblances of animals or plants of any species, their agreements in specific characters, are doubtless due, in the main, to the properties of what is innate in them, yet not to any abstraction. This is sufficiently conspicuous not to need any proof, and is denied by no Darwinian. The analogy is ~o close indeed between the internal determinations of growth in an organism and the external ones of crystals, that Mr. Darwin was led by it to invent his provisional hypothesis of Pangen- esis, or theory of gemmular reproduction. The gemmules in this theory being the perfect analogues of the hypothetical atoms of the chemical substances that are supposed to arrange themselves in crystalline forms, the theory rather gives prob- ability to the chemical theory of atoms than borrows any from it. But we shall recur to this theory of Pangenesis further on. General physiology, or physical and theoretical biology, are sciences in which, through the study of the laws of inheritance, and the direct and indirect effect of external conditions, we must arrive, if in any way, at a more and more definite knowl- edge of the causes of specific manifestations; and this is what Mr. Darwins labors have undertaken to do, and have partially accomplished. Every step he has taken has been in strict con- formity to the principles of method which the examples of in- ductive and experimental science have established. A stricter observance of these by Mr. Murphy and our author might have saved them from the mistake we have noticed, and from many others, the realism of ascribing efficacy to an abstraction, making attraction and polarity produce structures and forms independently of the products and of the concrete matters and forces in them. A similar realism vitiates nearly all specu- lations in theoretical biology, which are not designedly, or even instinctively, as in Mr. Darwins work, made to conform to the rigorous rules of experimental philosophy. These require us to assume no causes that are not true or phenomenally known, 1871.] The G~enesis of Specie8. 7S and known in some other way than in the effect to be explained; and to prove the sufficiency of those we do assume in some other way than by putting an abstract name or description of an effect for its cause, like using the words attraction and polarity to account for things the matters of which have come together in a definite form. It may seem strange to many readers to be told that Mr. Darwin, the most consummate speculative genius of our times, is no more a maker of hypoth- eses than Newton was, who, unable to discover the cause of the properties of gravitation, wrote the often-quoted but much misunderstood words, hypotheses non flngo. For, he adds, whatever is not deduced from the phenomena is to be called an hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, whether of occult qualities or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena, and afterwards rendered general by induction. Thus it was that the impen- etrability, the mobility, and the impulsive force of bodies, and the laws of motion and gravitation, were discovered. And to us it is enough that gravity does really exist and act according to the laws which we have explained, and abundantly serves to account for all the motions of the celestial bodies and of our sea. Thus, also, it is that the variability of organisms and the known laws of variation and inheritance, and of the influ- ences of external conditions, and the law of Natural Selection, have been discovered. And though it is not enough that van.. ability and selection do really exist and act according to laws which Mr. Darwin has explained (since the limits of their action and efficiency are still to be ascertained), yet it is enough for the present that Darwinians do not rest, like their oppo- nents, contented with framing what Newton would have called, if he had lived after Kant, tran8cendental hypotheses, which have no place in experimental philosophy. It may be said that Mr. Darwin has invented the hypothesis of Pangenesis, against the rules of this philosophy; but so also did Newton invent the corpuscular theory of light, with a similar purpose and utility. In determining the limits of the action of Natural Selection, and its sufficiency within these limits, the same demonstrative adequacy should not, for obvious reasons, be demanded as con- The Genesi8 of Speczes. [July, ditions of assenting to its highly probable truth; that Newton proved for his speculation. For the facts for this investigation are hopelessly wanting. Astronomy presents the anomaly, among the physical sciences, of being the only science that deals in the concrete with a few naturally isolated causes, which are sepa- rated from all other lines of causation in a way that in other phys- ical sciences can only be imitated in the carefully guarded ex- periments of physical and chemical laboratories. The study of animals and plants under domestication is, indeed, a similar mode of isolating with a view to ascertaining the physical laws of life by inductive investigations. But the theory of Natural Selec- tion, in its actual application to the phenomena of life and the origin of species, should not be compared to the theory of gravita- tion in astronomy, nor to the principles of physical science as they appear in the natures that are shut in by the experimental resources of the laboratory, but rather to these principles as they are actually working, and have been working, in the concrete courses of outward nature, in meteorology and physical geology. Still better, perhaps, at least for the purposes of illustration, we may compare the principle of Natural Selection to the fun- damental laws of political economy, demonstrated and actually at work in the production of the values and the prices in the market of the wealth which human needs and efforts demand and supply. Who can tell from these principles what the mar- ket will be next week, or account for its prices of last week, even by the most ingenious use of hypotheses to supply the missing evidence? The empirical economist and statistician imagines that he can discover some other principles at work, some predetermined regularity in the market, some innate principles in it, to which the general laws of political economy are subordinated; and speculating on them, might risk his own wealth in trade, as the speculative vitalist might, if any- thing could be staked on a transcendental hypothesis. In the same way the empirical weather-philosopher thinks he can dis- cern regularities in the weather, which the known principles of mechanical and chemical physics will not account for, and to which they are subordinate. This arises chiefly from his want of imagination, of a clear mental grasp of these principles, and of an adequate knowledge of the resources of legitimate hypoth 1871.1 The Gtenesis of Species. 75 esis to supply the place of the unknown incidental causes through which these principles act. Such are also the sources of most of the difficulties which our author has found in the applications of the theory of Natural Selection. His work is chiefly taken up with these difficulties. He does not so much insist on the probability of his own transcendental hypothesis, as endeavor to make way for it by discrediting the sufficiency of its rival; as if this could serve his purpose; as if experimental philosophy itself, without aid from Darwin- ism, would not reject his metaphysical, occult, transcendental hypothesis of a specially predetermined and absolute fixity of species, an hypothesis which multiplies species in an organ- ism to meet emergencies, the emergencies of theory, much as the epicycles of Ptolemy had to be multiplied in the heavens. Ptolemy himself had the sagacity to believe that his was only a mathematical theory, a mode of representation, not a theory of causation; and to prize it only as representative of the facts of observation, or as saving the appearances. Mr. Mivarts theory, on the other hand, is put forward as a theory of causa- tion, not to save appearances, but to justify the hasty conclusion that they are real; the appearances, namely, of complete tem- porary fixity, alternating with abrupt changes, in the forms of life which are exhibited by the scanty records of geology and in present apparently unchanging natural species. Before proceeding to a special consideration of our authors difficulties on the theory of Natural Selection, we will quote from Mr. Darwins latest work, The Descent of Man, his latest views of the extent of the action of this principle and its relations to the general theory of evolution. He says (Chapter IV.): Thus a very large yet undefined extension may safely be given to the direct and indirect results of Natural Selection; but I now admit, after reading the essay by Niigeli on plants, and the remarks by various authors with respect to animals, more especially those recently made by Professor Broca, that in the earlier editions of my Origin of Spe- cies I probably attributed too much to the action of Natural Selection, or the survival of the fittest. I have altered the fifth edition of the Origin [the edition which Mr. Mivart reviews in his work], so as to confine my remarks to adaptive changes of structure. I had not for- merly sufficiently considered the existence of many structures which 76 The Genesis of Species. [July, appear to be, as far as we can judge, neither beneficiAl nor injurious; and this I believe to be one of the greatest oversights as yet detected in my work. I may be permitted to say, as some excuse, that I had two distinct objects in view: firstly, to show that species had not been separately created; and secondly, that Natural Selection had been the chief agent of change, though largely aided by the inherited effects of habit, and slightly by the direct action of the surrounding conditions. Nevertheless, I was not able to annul the influence of my former belief, then widely prevalent, that each species had been purposely created; and this led to my tacitly assuming that every detail of structure, excepting rudiments, was of some special, though unrecognized, ser- vice. Any one with this assumption in his mind would naturally extend the action of Natural Selection, either during past or present times, too far. Some of those who admit the principle of evolution, but reject Natural Selection, seem to forget, when criticising my work, that I had the above two objects in view; hence, if I have erred in giving to Natu- ral Selection great power, which I am far from admitting, or in having exaggerated its power, which is in itself probable, I have at least, as I hope, done good service in aiding to overthrow the dogma of separate creations. In one other respect Mr. Darwin has modified his views of the action of Natural Selection, in consequence of a valuable criticism in the North British Review of June, 1867; and our author regards this modification as very important, and says of it that this admission seems almost to amount to a change of front in the face of the enemy. It is not, as we shall see, an important modification at all, and does not change in any essential particular the theory as propounded in the first edi- tion of the Origin of Species, but our authors opinion of it has helped us to discover what, without this confirmation, seemed almost incredible, how completely he has misappre- hended, not merely the use of the theory in special applications, which is easily excusable, but also the nature of its general operation and of the causes employed by it; thus furnishing an additional illustration of what he says in his Introduction, that few things are more remarkable than the way in which it [this theory] has been misunderstood. One other consideration has also been of aid to us. In his concluding chapter on Theology and Evolution, in which he very ably shows, and on the most venerable authority, that there is no necessary 1871.] The aene8is of sS[pecie8. 77 conffict betweQn the strictest orthodoxy and the theory of evo- lution, he remarks (and quotes Dr. Newman) on the narrowing effect of single lines of study. Not only inabilities may be pro- duced by a one-sided pursuit, but a positive distaste may grow up, which, in the intellectual order, may amount to a spontaneous and unreasoning disbelief in that which appears to be in opposition to the more familiar concept, and this at all times. This is, of course, meant to apply to those who, from want of knowledge, also lack ability and interest and even ac- quire a distaste for theological studies. But it also has other and equally important applications. Mr. Mivart, it would at first sight seem, being distinguished as a naturalist and also versed in theology, is not trammelled by any such narrowness as to disable him from giving just weight to both sides of the question he discusses. But what are the two sides? Are they the view of the theologian and the naturalist? Not at all. The debate is between the theologian and descriptive naturalist on one side, or the theologian and the student of natural history in its narrowest sense, that is, systematic biol- ogy; and on the other side the physical naturalist, physiolo- gist, or theoretical biologist. Natural history and biology, or the general science of life, are very comprehensive terms, and comprise in their scope widely different lines of pursuit and a wide range of abilities. In fact, the sciences of biology contain contrasts in the objects, abilities, and interests of scientific pursuit almost as wide as that presented by the physical sci- ences generally, and the sciences of direct observation, descrip-. tion, and classification. The same contrast holds, indeed, even in a science so limited in its material objects as astronomy. The genius of the practical astronomer and observer is very different from that of the physical astronomer and mathema- tician; though success in this science generally requires now- adays that some degree of both should be combined. So the genius of the physiologist is different from that of the naturalist proper, though in the study of comparative anatomy the ob- server has to exercise some of the skill in analysis and in the use of hypotheses which are the genius of the physical sciences in the search for unknown causes. We may, perhaps, comprise all the forms of intellectual genius (excluding ~sthetics) under 1(8 The aene8is of Species. [July, three chief classes, namely, first, the genius that pursues suc- cessfully the researches for unknown causes by the skilful use of hypothesis and experiment; secondly, that which, avoiding the use of hypotheses or preconceptions altogether and the delusive influence of names, brings together in clear connec- tions and contrasts in classification the objects of nature in their broadest and realest relations of resemblance; and thirdly, that genius which seeks with success for reasons and authori- ties in support of cherished convictions. That our author may have the last two forms of genius, even in a notable degree, we readily admit; but that he has not the first to the degree needed, for an inquiry, which is essentially a branch of physical science, we propose to show. We have already pointed out how his theological education, his school- ing against Democritus, has misled him in regard to the mean- ing of accidents or accidental causes in physical science; as if to the physical philosopher these could possibly be an absolute and distinct class, not included under the law of cau- sation, that every event must have a cause or determinate antecedents, whether we can trace them out or not. The accidental causes of science are only accidents~ relatively to the intelligence of a man. Eclipses have the least of this character to the astronomer of all the phenomena of nature; yet to the savage they are the most terrible of monstrous acci- dents. The accidents of monstrous variation, or even of the small and limited variations normal in any race or species, are only accidents relatively to the intelligence of the naturalist, or to his knowledge of general physiology. An accident is what cannot be anticipated from what we know, or by any intelli- gence, perhaps, which is less than omniscient. But this is not the most serious misconception of the acci- dental causes of science, which our author has fallen into. H~ utterly mistakes the particular class of accidents concerned in the process of Natural Selection. To make this clear, we will enu- merate the classes of causes which are involved in this process. In the first place, there are the external conditions of an ani- mals or plants life, comprising chiefly its relations to other organic beings, but partly its relations to inorganic nature, and determining its needs and some of the means of satisfying them. 1871.] The aenesis of Species. 79 These conditions are consequences of the external courses of events or of the partial histories of organic and inorganic na- ture. In the second place, there are the general principles of the fitness of means to ends, or of supplies to needs. These com- prise the best ascertained and most fundamental of all the prin- ciples of science, such as the laws of mechanical, optical, and. acoustical science, by which we know how a leg, arm, or wing, a bony frame, a muscular or a vascular system, an eye or an ear, can be of use. In the third place, there are the causes introduced by Mr. Darwin to the attention of physiologists, as normal facts of organic nature, the little known phenomena of variation, and their relations to the laws of inheritance. There are several classes of these. The most important in the theory of Natural Selection are the diversities always existing in any race of animals or plants, called individual differences, which always determine a better fitness of some individuals to the general conditions of the existence of a race than other less fortunate individuals have. The more than specific agreements in characters, which the best fitted individuals of a race must thus exhibit, ought, if possible, according to Ouviers principles of zoiAogy, to be included in the description of a species (as a norm or type which only the best exhibit), instead of the rough averages to which the naturalist really resorts in defining spe- cies by marks or characters that are variable. But probably such averages in variable characters are really close approx- imations to the characters of the best general adaptation; for variation being, so far as known, irrespective of adaptation, is as likely to exist to the same extent on one side of the norm of utility as on the other, or by excess as generally as by defect. Though variation is irrespective of utility, its limits are not. Too great a departure from the norm of utility must put an end to life and its successions. Utility therefore determines, along with the laws of inheritance, not only the middle line or safcst way of a race, but also the bounding limits of its path of life; and so long as the conditions and principles of utility embodied in a form of life remain unchanged, they will, to- gether with the laws of inheritance, maintain a race unchanged in its average characters. Specific stability, therefore, for which theological and descriptive naturalists have speculated a 80 The aenesis of Species. [July, transcendental cause, is even more readily and directly accounted for by the causes which the theory of Natural Selection regards than is specific change. But just as obviously it follows from these causes that a change in the conditions and resources of utility, not only may but must change the normal characters of a species, or else the race must perish. Again, a slow and gradual change in the conditions of existence must, on these principles, slowly change the middle line or safest way of life (the descriptive or graphic line); but always, of course, this change must be within the existing limits of variation, or the range of individual differences. A change in these limits would then follow, or the range of individual differences would be extended, at least, so far as we know, in the direc- tion of the change. That it is widened or extended to a greater range by rapid and important changes in conditions of exist- ence, is a matter of observation in many races of animals and plants that have been long subject to domestication or to the capricious conditions imposed by human choice and care. This phenomenon is like what would happen if a roadway or path across a field were to become muddy or otherwise obstructed. The travelled way would swerve to one side, or be broadened, or abandoned, according to the nature and degree of the ob.~ struction, and to the resources of travel that remained. This class of variations, that is, individual differences, constant and normal in a race, but having different ranges in different races, or in the same race under different circumstances, may be regarded as in no proper sense accidentally related to the advantages that come from them; or in no other sense than a tendril, or a tentacle, or a hand searching in the dark, is acci- dentally related to the object it succeeds in finding. And yet we say properly that it was by accident that a certain ten- dril was put forth so as to fulfil its function, and clasp the par- ticular object by which it supports the vine; or that it was an accidental movement of the tentacle or hand that brought the object it has secured within its grasp. The search was, and continues to be, normal and general; it is the particular suc- cess only that is accidental; and this only in the sense that lines of causation, stretching backwards infinitely, and unre- lated except in a first cause, or in the total order of nature, 1871.] The qenesis of Species. 81 come together and by their concurrence produce it. Yet over even this concurrence law still presides, to the effect that for every such concurrence the same consequences follow. But our author, with his mind filled with horror of blind chance, and of the fortuitous concourse of atoms, has entire- ly overlooked the class of accidental variations, on which, even in the earlier editions of the Origin of Species, the theory of Natural Selection is based, and has fixed his attention exclu- sively on another class, namely, abnormal or unusual variations, which Mr. Darwin at first supposed might also be of service in this process. The fault might, perhaps, be charged against Mr. Darwin for not sufficiently distinguishing the two classes, as well as overlooking, until it was pointed out by his critic in the North British Review, before referred to, the fact that the latter class could be of no service; if it were not that our authors work is a review of the last edition of the Origin of Species and of the treatise on Animals and Plants under Domestication, in both of which Mr. Darwin has emphatically distinguished these classes, and admitted that it is upon the first class only that Natural Selection can normally depend; though the second class of unusual and monstrous variations may give rise, by highly improbable though possible accidents, to changes in the characters of whole races. Mr. Mivart char- acterizes this admission by the words we have quoted, that it seems almost to amount to a change of front in the face of the enemy; of which it might have been enough to say, that the strategy of science is not the same as that of rhetorical dispu- tation, and aims at cornering facts, not antagonists. But Mr. Mivart profits by it as a scholastic triumph over heresy, which he insists upon celebrating, rather than as a correction of his own misconceptions of the theory. He continues throughout his book to speak of the variations on which Natural Selection depends as if they were all of rare occurrence, like abrupt and monstrous variations, instead of being always present in a race; and also as having the additional disadvantage of being in- dividually slight, minute, insensible, infinitesimal , fortuitous, and indefinite. These epithets are variously combined in different passages, but his favorite compendious formula is, minute, fortuitous, and indefinite variations.~~ VOL. OXIII.NO. 232. 6 82 The G~enesis of Specie& . [July, When, however, he comes to consider the enormous time which snch a process must have taken to produce the pres- ent forms of life, he brings to bear all his forces, and says (p. 154): It is not easy to believe that less than two thou- sand million years would be required for the totality of animal development by no other means than minute, fortuitous, occa- sional, and intermitting variations in all conceivable directions. This exceeds very much by some two hundred-fold the length of time Sir William Thomson allows for the continuance of life on the earth. It is difficult to see how, with such uncertain fortuitous, occasional, and intermitting elements, our author could have succeeded in making any calculations at all. On the probability of the correctness of Sir William Thomsons physical arguments the author of this book can- not presume to advance an opinion; but, he adds (p. 150), the fact that they have not been refuted pleads strongly in their favor when we consider how much they tell against the theory of Mr. Darwin. He can, it appears, judge of them on his own side. For the descriptive epithets which our author applies to the variations on which he supposes Natural Selection to depend he has the following authority. He says (p. 35): Now it is distinctly enunciated by Mr. Darwin that the spontaneous vari- ations upon which his theory depends are individually slight, minute, and insensible. He says (Animals and Plants under Domestication, Vol. II. p. 192): Slight individual differences, however, suffice for the work, and are probably the sole differ- ences which are effective in the production of new species. After what we have said as to the real nature of the differences from which nature selects, it might be, perhaps, unnecessary to explain what ought at least to have been known to a natu- ralist, that by individual differences~~ is meant the differences between the individuals of a race of animals or plants; that the slightness of them is only relative to the differences between the characters of species, and that they may be very consider- able in themselves, or their effects, or evemi to the eye of the naturalist. How the expression slight individual differences could have got translated in our authors mind into individu- ally slight, minute, and insensible ones, has no natural expla 1871.] The O~enesis of Species. 83 nation. But this is not the only instance of such an unfathom- able translation in our authors treatment of the theory of Natural Selection. Two others occur on page 133. In the first he says: Mr. Darwin abundantly demonstrates the vari- ability of dogs, horses, fowls, and pigeons, but he none the less shows the very small extent to which the goose, the peacock, and the guinea-fowl have varied. Mr. Darwin attempts to explain this fact as regards the goose by the animal being valued only for food and feathers, and from no pleasure having been felt in it on other accounts. He adds, however, at the end, the striking remark, which concedes the whole position, but the goose seems to have a singularly inflexible o~gani- zation. The translation is begun in the authors italics, and completed a few pages further on (p. 141), where, recurring to this subject, he says: We have seen that Mr. Darwin him- self implicitly admits the principle of specific stability in assert- ing the singular inflexibility of the organization of the goose. This is what is called in scholastic logic, Fallacia a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter. The obvious meaning, both from the contexts and the evidence, of the expression singularly inflexible, is that the goose has been much less changed by domestication than other domestic birds. But this relative inflexibility is understood by our author as an admission of an absolute one, in spite of the evidence that geese have varied from the wild type, and have individual differences, and even differences of breeds, which are sufficiently conspicuous, even to the eye of a goose. The next instance of our authors trans- lations (p. 133) is still more remarkable. He continues: This is not the only place in which such expressions are used. He [Mr. Darwin] elsewhere makes use of phrases which quite harmonize with the conception of a normal specific con- stancy, but varying greatly and suddenly at intervals. Thus he speaks of a whole organism seeming to have become plastic and tending to depart from the parental type (Origin of Spe- cies, 5th edit., 1869, p. 13). The italics are Mr. Mivarts. The passage from which these words are quoted (though they are not put in quotation-marks) is this: It is well worth while carefully to study the several treatises on some of our old cultivated plants, as on the hyacinth, potato, even the dahlia, 84 The Genesis of Species. [July, etc.; and it is really surprising to note the endless points in structure and constitution in which the varieties and sub-varie- ties differ slightly from each other. The whole organization seems to have become plastic, and tends to depart in a slight degree from that of the parental type. The words that we have italicized in this quotation are omitted by our author, though essential to the point on which he cites Mr. Darwins authority, namely, as to the organism varying greatly and suddenly at intervals. Logic has no adequate name for this fallacy; but there is another in our authors understanding of the passage which is very familiar, the fallacy of ambiguous terms. Mr. Darwin obviously uses the word plastic in its secondary signification as the name of that which is capable of being moulded, modelled, or fashioned to the purpose, as clay. But our author quite as obviously understands it in its primary signification as the name of anything having the power to give form. But this is a natural enough misunder- standing, since in scholastic philosophy the primary significa- tion of plastic is the prevailing one. Such being our authors misconceptions of the principle of Natural Selection, and such their source, it would be useless to follow him in his tests of it by hypothetical illustrations from the history of animals; but we are bound to make good our assertion that the authors difficulties have arisen, not only from his want of a clear mental grasp of principles, but also from an inadequate knowledge of the resources of legitimate hypothesis to supply the unknown incidental causes through which the principle has acted. These deficiencies of knowledge and imagination, though more excusable, are not less conspic- uous in his criticisms than the defects we have noticed. He says (p. 59): It may be objected, perhaps, that these diffi- culties are difficulties of ignorance; that we cannot explain them, because we do not know enough of the animals. It is not surprising that lie adds: But it is here contended that this is not the case; it is not that we merely fail to see how Natural Selection acted, but that there is a positive incompatibility between the cause assigned and the results. And no wonder that he remarks at the close of the chapter (Chapter II.): That minute, fortuitous, and indefinite varia 1871.] The Genesis of Species. 85 lions could have brought about such special forms and mod- ifications as have been enumerated in this chapter seems to contradict, not imagination, but reason. In this chapter on Incipient Structures, the fact is quite overlooked, which is so conspicuous in the principles of com- parative anatomy, how few the fundamental structures are, which have been turned to such numerous uses; how meagre have been the resources of Natural Selection, so far as it has depended on the occurrence of structures which were of no previous use, or were not already partially useful in directions in which they have been modified by the selection and inher- itance of individual differences; or how important to Natu- ral Selection have been the principles of indirect utility and correlated acquisition, dependent on ultimate physical laws. The human hand is still useful in swimming, and the fishes fins could even be used for holding or clasping, if there were occasion for it. We might well attribute the paucity of indif- ferent types of structure to the agency of the rarest accidents of nature, though not in a theological sense. Animals and plants are no longer dependent for improvement on their occurrence, and, perhaps, never were after their competition and struggle for existence had fully begun. It is so much easier for them to turn to better account powers that they already possess in small degrees. Previously to such a com- petition and struggle, when the whole field of the inorganic conditions of life was open to simple organisms, they were doubtless much more variable than afterwards. But varia- bility would then have been, as it is now, in no absolute sense accidental. On the contrary, variation would have been, in- stead of comparative stability in species, the most prominent normal feature of life. The tentative powers of life, instead of its hereditary features, trying all things, but not holding fast to that which is good, or not so firmly as afterwards, would have been its most characteristic manifestation. Our authors general difficulty in this chapter is as to how variations too small to have been of use could have been preserved, and he is correct in thinking that it could not be by Natural Selection, or the survival of the fittest, but wrong in thinking that varia- tions are generally so rare or so insignificant, even in present .86 The ~eflesis of Species. [July, forms of life as to require a power other than those of life in general to bring them forth when needed, or to produce them iii useful amounts. The first example of the working of Natural Selection is the well-known case of the neck of the giraffe. This, it has been imagined, though not by Mr. Darwin, was produced by its sup- posed use in aiding this animal to feed on the foliage of trees, and by the occasional advantage it would give to the highest reaching individuals, when in drought and scarcity the ground vegetation and lower foliage was consumed, and by thus ena- bling them to survive the others and continue the species, transmitting this advantage to their offspring. Without deny- ing that this is an excellent hypothetical illustration of the pro- cess of Natural Selection, Mr. Mivart attacks its probability as a matter of fact. In reply to it he says: But against this it may be said, in the first place, that the argument proves too much; for, on this supposition, many species must have tended to undergo a similar modification, and we ought to have at least several forms similar to the giraffe developed from differ- ent Ungulata, or hoofed beasts. We would even go further than Mr. Mivart, and hold that, on the hypothesis in question, not only several forms, but the whole order of Ungulata, or large portions of it, should have been similarly modified; at least those inhabiting regions subject to droughts and present- ing the alternative of grazing on the ground and browsing on the foliage of high trees. But as these alternatives do not universally exist in regions inhabited by such animals, very long necks would not, perhaps, characterize the whole order, if this hypothesis were true; as the habit of herding does, for example. We may observe, however, that this illustration from the giraffes neck is not an argument at all, and proves nothing, though the hypothesis employed by it is very well called in question by Mr. Mivarts criticism. But can Mr. Mivart ~suppose that, having fairly called in question the impor- tance of the high-feeding use of the giraffes neck, he has thereby destroyed the utility of the neck altogether, not only to the theory of Natural Selection, but also to the animal itself? Is there, then, no important use in the giraffes neck? Is it really the monstrosity it appears to be, when seen out of rela 1871.] The Genesis of Species. 87 tion to the normal conditions of the animals life? But if there be any utility left in the neck, as a teleologist or a believer in Final Causes would assume without question, and in spite of this criticism, then it might serve the purposes of Natural Selec- tion even better perhaps than that of the mistaken hypothesis. If our author had approached this subject in the proper spirit, his criticism would probably have led him to an important ob- servation, which his desire to discredit a much more important discovery has hidden from his view. He would have inquired what are the conditions of existence of the Ungulates generally and of the giraffe in particular, which are so close pressing and so emphatically attest the grounds of their severest strug- gle for life, as to be likely to cause in them the highest degree of specialty and adaptation. The question of food is obviously not concerned in such a struggle, for this order of animals lives generally upon food which is the most abundant and most easily obtained. Mr. Mivart compares his objection to one that has been made against Mr. Wallaces views as to the uses of color in animals, that color being dangerous, should not exist in nature, or that a dull color being needful, all animals should be so colored. He quotes Mr. Wallaces reply, but does not take the clew to the solution of his difficulty respecting the giraffes neck, which it almost forces on him. This reply was, that many animals can afford brilliant colors, and their various direct uses or values, when the animals are otherwise provided with sufficient protection, and that brilliant colors are even sometimes indirectly protective. The quills of the porcu- pine, the shells of tortoises and mussels, the very hard coats of certain beetles, the stings of certain other insects, the nauseous taste of brilliantly colored caterpillars, and other in- stances, are given as examples. Now, what bearing has this on the long neck of the giraffe? According to our author, who is himself at this point on the defensive, it is as follows. He says: But because many different kinds of animals can elude the observation or defy the attack of enemies in a great variety of ways, it by no means follows that there are any similar number and variety of ways for attaining vegetable food in a country where all such food other than the lofty branches of trees has been destroyed. In such a country we have a number 88 The G~enesis of Specze8. [July, of vegetable-feeding Ungulates, all of which present minute variations as to the length of the neck. Mr. Mivart is appar- ently not aware that he is here arguing, not against the theory of Natural Selection, but against a subordinate and false hy- pothesis under it. But if he thinks thus to undermine the theory, it must be because he is not aware of, or has not present to his imagination, the numberless ingenuities of na- ture, and the resources of support the theory has to rest upon. There can be no doubt that the neck of the giraffe, whatever other uses it can be put to, and it is put to several, is pre-emi- nently useful as a watch-tower. Its eyes, large and lustrous, which beam with a peculiarly mild but fearless expression, are so placed as to take in a wider range of the horizon than is subject to the vision of any other quadruped. While browsing on its favorite acacia, the giraffe, by means of its laterally pro- jecting orbits, can direct its sight so as to anticipate a threat- ened attack in the rear from the stealthy lion or any other foe of the desert. When attacked, the giraffe can defend itself by powerful blows with its well-armed hoofs, and even its short horns can inflict fatal blows by the sidelong swing of its neck. But these are not its only protections against danger. Its nos- trils can be voluntarily closed, like the camels, against the sandy, suffocating clouds of the desert. The tail of the giraffe looks like an artificially constructed fly-flapper; and it seems at first incredible, says Mr. Darwin, that this could have been adapted for its present purpose by successive slight mod- ifications, each better and better fitted, for so trifling an object as to drive away flies; yet we should pause before being too positive, even in this case, for we know that the distribution and existence of cattle and other animals in South America absolutely depend on their power of resisting the attacks of insects; so that individuals which could, by any means, defend themselves from these small enemies, would be able to range into new pastures, and thus gain a great advantage. It is not that the larger quadrupeds are actually destroyed (except- in rare cases) by flies, but they are incessantly harassed and their strength reduced, so that they are more subject to disease, or not so well enabled in a coming dearth to search for food, or to escape from beasts of prey. 1871.] The Genesi8 of fpecie8. 89 This passage recalls our main problem, which does not con- cern the giraffe alone, but all the Ungulates; and its solution will show that this order of animals exhibits, almost as well as Mr. Wallaces examples, the resources that nature has for the protection of animals that have the disadvantage, not, indeed, generally of brilliant colors, but of exposure by living exclu- sively on bulky and comparatively innutritious food. Nearly all the -resources of defensive warfare are exhausted in their specialties of protection. The giraffe alone is provided with a natural watch-tower, but the others are not left without defence. All, or nearly all, live in armies or herds, and some post senti- nels around their herds. The numerous species of the ante- lope resort to natural fortifications or fastuesses. They are the natives for the most part of the wildest and least accessible places in the warmer latitudes of the globe, frequenting the cliffs and ledges of mountain rocks or the verdure-clad banks of tropical streams, or the oases of the desert. Other tribes de- pend on their fleetness, and on hiding in woods like the deer. Others, again, on great powers of endurance in flight and long marches, like the camels with their commissaries of provision. Others, again, with powerful frames, like the rhinoceros and the bisons, resort to defensive attack. The ruminant habits and organs of large numbers are adapted to rapid and danger- ous foraging, and to digestion under protection from beasts of prey and insects. But our author, with little fertility of defence for the theory of Natural Selection, is still not without some ingenuity in at- tack. He objects, in the second place, that the longest necked giraffes, being by so much the larger animals, would not be strong in proportion, but would need more food to sustain them, a disadvantage which would, perhaps, more than out- balance the long neck in times of drought; and he cites Mr. Spencers ingenious speculations on the relations of size, food, and strength, in confirmation of this objection. But he forgets or overlooks the important physiological law of the compensa- tion or economy of growth which prevails in variations. A longer neck does not necessarily entail a greater bulk or weight on the animal as a whole. The neck may have grown at the expense of the hind parts in the ancestors of the giraffe. If we 90 TAe Genesis of Specze8. [July, met with an individual man with a longer neck than usual, we should not expect to find him heavier, or relatively weaker, or requiring more food on that account. But let us pass to the next illustration of the insufficiency of Natural Selection. This is the difficulty our author finds in attributing to this cause va- rious cases of mimicry or protective resemblances of animals to other animals, or to other natural objects. In some insects this is carried to a wonderful extent. Thus, some which imi- tate leaves when at rest, in the sizes, shapes, colors, and mark- ings of their wings, extend the imitation even to the very injuries on those leaves made by the attacks of insects or fungi. Thus Mr. Wallace says of the walking-stick insects: One of these creatures, obtained by myself in Borneo, was covered over with foliaceous excrescences of a cleald olive-green color so as exactly to resemble a stick grown over by creeping moss or jungermannia. The Dyak who brought it me assured me it was grown over with moss, although alive, and it was only after a most minute examination that I could convince myself it was not so. And in speaking of the leaf-butterfly, he says: We come to a still more extraordinary part of the imitation, for we find representations of leaves in every stage of decay, variously blotched and mildewed, and pierced with holes, and in many cases irregularly covered with powdery black dots, gathered into patches and spots, so closely resem- bling the various kinds of minute fungi that grow on dead leaves that it is impossible to avoid thinking, at first sight, that the butterflies themselves have been attacked by real fungi. Upon these passages our author remarks: Here imitation has attained a development which seems utterly beyond the power of the mere survival of the fittestto produce. How this double mimicry can importantly aid in the struggle for life seems puz- zling indeed, but much more so how the first beginnings of the imitation of such injuries in the leaf can be developed in the animal into such a complete representation of them; a fortiori, how simultaneous and similar first beginnings of imitations of such injuries could ever have been developed in several indi- viduals, out of utterly indifferent and indeterminate infinitesi- mal variations in all conceivable directions.~~ What ought to have been first suggested to a naturalist by 1871.] Tile (Thze8is of ~pecws. 91 this wonderful mimicry is, what clever entomologists some insectivorous birds must have become to be able to press the conditions of existence and the struggle for life in these in- sects to such a degree of specialty. But this, after all, is not so very wonderful, when we consider what microscopic sight these birds must have acquired and what practice and exclusive interest in the pursuit! We may feel pretty confident, how- ever, that neither Natural Selection nor any occult or transcen- dental cause has ever carried protective mimicry beyond eye- sight, though it may well be a better eyesight than that even of a skilful naturalist. There is no necessity to suppose, with our author, that the variations on which this selection depended were either simultaneous, or infinitesimal, or indifferent, for individual differences are always considerable and generally greatest in directions in which variations have already most recently occurred, as in characters in which closely allied races differ most from each other; but, doubtless, a very long time was required for these very remarkable cases of mimicry to have come to pass. Their difficulties resemble those of the development of sight itself, on which our author comments elsewhere; but in these particular cases the conditions of hide and seek in the sport of nature present correlated difficulties, which, like acid and alkali, serve to neutralize each other. In these cases, four distinct forms of life of widely diverse origins, or very remotely connected near the beginnings of life itself, like four main branches of a tree, have come to- gether into closest relations, as parts of the foliage of the four main branches might do. These are certain insectivorous birds, certain higher vegetable forms, the imitated sticks or leaves, certain vegetable parasites on them, and the mimicking in sects. But the main phenomenon was and is the neck-and- neck race of variation and selection between the powers of hid- ing in the insect and the powers of finding in the bird. Our author overlooks the fact that variations in the bird are quite as essential to the process as those of the insect, and has chosen to consider elsewhere the difficulties which the developments of the eye present, and in equal independence of its obvious uses. The fact that these, as well as other extraordinary cases of mimicry, are found only in tropical climates, or climates 92 The G~enesis of Species. [July, equable not only in respect to short periodic but also secular changes, accords well with the probable length of time in which this competition has been kept up; and the extraordinary, that is, rare character of the phenomenon agrees well with the prob- able supposition that it has always begun in what we call in science an accident. If its beginnings were common, their natural consequences would also be common, and would not be wonderful; and if it arose from a destructive, unintelligent, evil principle, from Ahriman, it has, at least, shown how the course of nature has been able to avoid destruction, to the astonishment of human intelligence, and how Oromasdes has been able to defeat his antagonist by turning evil into good. Let us take next our authors treatment of a supposed origin of the mammary, or milk glands Is it conceivable, he asks (p. 60), that the young of any animal was ever saved from destruction by accidentally sucking a drop of scarcely nutritious fluid from an accidentally hypertrophied cutaneous gland of its mother? And even if one was so, whnt chance was there of the perpetuation of such a variation? On the hypothesis of Natu- ral Selection itself we must assume that, up to that time, the race had been well adapted to the surrounding conditions; the temporary and accidental trial and change of conditions, which caused the so-sucking young one to be the fittest to survive under the supposed circum- stances, would soon cease to act, and then the progeny of the mother, with the accidentally hypertrophied sebaceous glands, would have no tendency to survive the far outnumbering descendants of the normal ancestral form. Here, as before, our author stakes the fate of the theory on the correctness of his own conceptions of the conditions of its action. He forgets, first of all, that the use of a milk gland in its least specialized form requires at least a sucking mouth, and that sucking mouths and probosces have very extensive uses in the animal kingdom. They are good for drinking water and nectar, and are used for drawing blood as well as milk; and, without reference to alimentation, are still serviceable for sup- port to parasitical animals. Might not the young, which before birth are, in a high degree, parasitical in all animals, find it highly advantageous to continue the habit after birth, even without reference to food, but for the generally quite as impor 1871.] The Genesis of Species. 93 tant use of protection against enemies, by clinging by a suck- ing mouth to the body of its dam? If this should cause seba- ceous glands to become hypertrophied and ultimately a valuable or even an exclusive source of nutrition, it would, perhaps, be proper to describe the phenomenon as an unintended or acci- dental, but not as a rare or improbable one. Moreover, though on the theory of Natural Selection (or, indeed, on any theory of the continuance of a race by modifications of structures and habits), the race must, while it lives, be fitted to live, yet it need be no more fitted to do so than to survive in its offspring. No race is so well fitted to its general conditions of existence, but that some individuals are better fitted than others, and have, on the average, an advantage. And new resources do not imply abandonment of the old, but only additions to them, giving superiorities that are almost never superfluous. How, indeed, but by accidents of the rarest occurrence, could varia- tion (much less selection) give superfluous advantages, on the whole, or except temporarily and so far as normal variations anticipate in general, regular, or usual changes in the condi- tions of existence? We have, to be sure, on the hypothesis we have proposed, still to account for the original of the sucking mouth, though its numerous uses are obvious enough, on the really uniform and unvarying types of natural law, the laws of inorganic physics, the principles of suction. But we are not ambitious to rival nature in ingenuity, only to contrast its resources with those of our naturalist. His next example is a criticism of the theory of Sexual Selection. Speaking of apes, he says When we consider what is known of the emotional nature of these animals and the periodicity of its intensification, it is hardly credible that a female would often risk life or limb through her admiration of a trifling shade of color or an infin- itesimally greater, though irresistibly fascinating degree of wartiness. Is it credible that Mr. Mivart can suppose that the higher or spiritual emotions, like affection, taste, conscience, ever act directly to modify or compete with the more energetic lower impulses, and not rather by forestalling and indirectly regulating them, as by avoiding temptation in the case of con- science; or by establishing social arrangements, companion- ships, friendships, and more or less permanent marriages in The Genesis of Species. [July, the case of sexual preferences? All such arrangements, all grounds for the action of taste or admiration, or any but the most monstrous friendships, are prevented or removed in the lives of caged beasts. His example and his inference from it are as much as if an explorer should discover a half-famished tribe of savages sustaining life upon bitter and nauseous food, and should conclude that not only these but all savages, the most provident, or even all men, are without any choice in food, and that in providing for future wants they are influ~ enced by no other considerations than the grossest cravings of appetite. But to return to Natural Selection. The next example is that of the rattling and expanding powers of poisonous snakes. The author says that in poisonous serpents, also, we have structures which, at all events, at first sight, seem positively hurtful to these reptiles. Such are the rattle of the rattlesnake and the expanding neck of the cobra, the former serving to warn the ear of the intended victim as the latter warns the eye. This first sight is all the use our author discovers in these organs; but why should these warnings be intended or used to drive away intended victims rather than enemies? Or is it among the intentions of nature to defeat those in the serpent? If the effects of such warnings really were to deprive these snakes of their proper food, would not experience itself and intelligence be sufficient in the wily serpent to correct such perverse instincts? It is, indeed, at first sight, curious that certain snakes, though these are the sluggish kinds, and cannot so easily escape their enemies by flight as others can, should be provided, not only with poisonous fangs, but with these means of warning either victims or dangerous enemies. But Mr. Wallace has furnished a clew to their correlation by his example of the relations between conspicuous colors and nauseous tastes in many caterpillars, the color serving as a sign of the taste and warning birds not to touch these kinds. The poisonous fang and its use are expensive and risky means of defence; the warnings associated with them are cheap and safe. But if, as is very likely, these warnings are also used against intended victims, they can only be used either to paralyze them with terror or allure them from curiosity, or to 1871.J Tke Genesis of Species. 95 produce in them that curious and paralyzing mixture of the two emotions, alarm and something like curiosity, which is all that is probably true of the supposed powers of fascination * iii ser- pents. Perhaps, also, the rattle. serves to inspire the sluggish snake itself with courage; and in this case the rattle will serve all the purposes that drums, trumpets, and gongs do in human warfare. The swaying body and vibrating tongue of most snakes, and the expanding neck and the hood of tlie cobras, may serve for banners. But the rattle has also been supposed to serve as a sexual call, very much as the inspirations of war- fare are turned into the allurements of the tournament, or as gongs also serve to call travellers to dinner. What poverty of resources in regard to the relations of use in the lives of ani- mals thus distinguishes our naturalist from the natural order of things! What wealth and capital are left for the employ- ments and industries of Natural Selection! In the next chapter our author charges the theory of Natural Selection with inability to account for independent similarities of structure; that it does not harmonize with the coexistence of closely similar structures of diverse origin, like the dental structures in the dog and in the carnivorous marsupial, the Thylacine, closely similar structures and of exactly the same utilities, though belonging to races so diverse that their com- mon ancestors could not have been like them in respect to this resemblance. But these structures really differ in points not essential to their utilities; in characters which, though incon- spicuous, are marks of the two great divisions of mammalia, to which these animals belong. Our author here attacks the theory in its very citadel, and has incautiously left a hostile force in his rear. He has claimed in the preceding chapter for Natural Selection that it ought to lia~e produced several inde- pendent races of long-necked Ungulates, as well as the giraffe; so that, instead of pursuing his illustrations any further, we * This is a real condition of mind in the subject of it; a condition in which inter- est or emotion gives to an idea such fixity and power that it takes possession at a fatal moment of the will and acts itself out; as in the fescination of the precipice. It is not, however, to be regarded as a natural contrivance in the mental acquisi- tions of the victims for the benefit of the serpent any more than the serpents warn- ings are for their benefit; but as a consequence of ultimate mental laws in general; of which the serpeuts faculties and habits take advantage. 96 The Genesi8 of Specie8. [July, may properly demand his surrender. Of course Natural Selec- tion requires for similar products similar means and conditions; but these are of such a general sort that they belong to wide ranges of life; and as it does not act by blind chance, or theological accidents, but by the invariable laws of nature and the tentative powers of life, it is not surprising that it often repeats its patterns independently of descent, or of the copying powers of inheritance. That the highest products of nature are not the results of the mere forces of inheritance, and do not come from the birth of latent powers and structures, seems to be the lesson of the obscure discourse in which Jesus endeavored to instruct Nico- demus the Pharisee, How is it that a man can be born again, acquire powers and characters that are not developments of what is already innate in him? How is it possible when he is old to acquire new innate principles, or to enter a second time into his mothers womb and be born? The reply does not suggest our authors hypothesis of a life turning over upon a new facet, or a new set of latent inherited powers. Only the symbols, water and the Spirit, which Christians have ever since worshipped, are given in reply; but the remarkable illus- tration of the accidentality of nature is added, which has been almost equally though independently admired. Marvel not that I said unto thee, Ye must be born again. The wind blow- eth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth; so is every one that is born of the Spirit. The highest products of nature are the outcome of its total and apparently accidental orders; or are born of water and the Spirit, which symbolize creative power. To this the Pharisee replied: How can these things be? ~ And the answer is still more significant: Art thou a master of Israel and knowest not these things? We bring natural evidences, and ye receive not our witness. If I have told you earthly (natural) things, and ye believe not, how shall ye believe if I tell you heavenly (supernatural) things? The bearing of our subject upon the doctrine of Final Causes in natural history has been much discussed and is of considerable importance to our authors theory and criticism. But we pro- pose, not only to distinguish between this branch of theology 1871.] The Genesis of Species. 97 and the theories of inductive science on one hand, but still more emphatically, on the other hand, between it and the Christian faith in divine superintendency, which is very liable to be confounded with it. The Christian faith is that even the fall of a sparrow is included in this agency, and that as men are of more value than many sparrows, so much more is their security. So far from weakening this faith by showing the con- nection between value and security, science and the theory of Natural Selection have confirmed it. The very agencies that give values to life secure them by planting them most broadly iii the immutable grounds of utility. But Natural Theology has sought by Platonic, not Christian, imaginations to discover, not the relations of security to value, but something worthy to be the source of the value considered as absolute, some particu- lar worthy source of each valued end. This is the motive of that speculation of Final Causes which Bacon condemned as sterile and corrupting to philosophy, interfering, as it does, with the study of the facts of nature, or of what is, by precon- ceptions, necessarily imperfect as to what ought to be; and by deductions from assumed ends, thought worthy to be the pur- poses of nature. The iiaturalists who take care not to ascribe to God any intention, sin rather against the spirit of Platonism than that of Christianity, while obeying the precepts of experi- mental philosophy. Though, as our author says, in speaking of the moral sense and the impossibility, as he thinks, that the accumulations of small repugnances could give rise to the strength of its abhorrence and reprobation; though, as he says, no stream can rise higher than its source; while fully admitting the truth of this, we would still ask, Where is its source? Surely not in the little fountains that Platonic explorers go in search of, a priori, which would soon run dry but for the rains of heaven, the water and the vapor of the distilling atmosphere. Out of this come also the almost weightless snow-flakes, which, combined in masses of great gravity, fall in the avalanche. The results of moralizing Pla- tonism should not be confounded with the simple Christian faith in Divine superintendence. The often-quoted belief of Professor Gray, that variation has been led along certain beneficial lines, like a stream along definite lines of irrigation, VOL. Cxiii. NO. 232. 7 98 The Genesis of Species. [July, might be interpreted to agree with either view. The lines on which variations are generally useful are lines of search, and their particular successes, dependent, it is true, on no theo- logical or absolute accidents, may be regarded as being lines of beneficial variations, seeing that they have resulted through laws of nature and principles of utility in higher living forms, or even in continuing definite forms of life on the earth. But thousands of movements of variation, or efforts of search, have not succeeded to one that has. These are not continued along evil lines, since thousands of forms have perished in conse- quence of them for every one that has survived. The growth of a tree is a good illustration of this process, and more closely resembles the action of selection in nature generally than might at first sight appear; for its branches are selected growths, a few out of many thousands that have begun in buds; and this rigorous selection has been effected by the accidents that have determined superior relations in surviving growths to their supplies of nutriment in the trunk and in ex- posure to light and air. This exposure (as great as is consist- ent with secure connection with the sources of sap) seems actually to be sought, and the form of the tree to be the result of some foresight in it. But the real seeking process is bud- ding, and the geometrical regularity of the production of buds in twigs has little or nothing to do with the ultimate selected results, the distributions of the branches, which are different for each individual tree. Even if the determinate variations really existed, the facets of stable equilibrium in life, which our author supposes, and were arranged with geometrical regu- larity on their spheroid of potential forms, as leaves and buds are in the twig, they would probably have as little to do with determining the ultimate diversities of life under the action of the selection which our author admits as phyllotaxy has to do with the branching of trees. But phyllotaxy, also, has its utility. Its orders are the best, for packing of the incipient leaves in the bud, and the best for the exposure to light and air of the developed leaves of the stem. But here its utility ends, except so far as its arrangements also present the great- est diversity of finite elements, within the smallest limits, for the subsequent choice of successful growths; being the nearest 1871.] The aenesis of Species. 99 approaches that finite regularity could make to indefinite vari- ations in all conceivable directions. The general resemblance of trees of a given kind depends on no formative principle other than physical and physiological properties in the woody tissue, and is related chiefly to the tenacity, flexibility, and vascularity of this tissue, the degrees of which might almost be inferred from the general form of the tree. It cannot be doubted, in the case of the tree, that this tentative though regular budding has been of service to the production of the trees growth, and that the particular growths which have survived and become the bases of future growths were determined by a beneficial though accidental order of events under the total orders of the powers concerned in the trees development. But if a rigorous selection had not continued in this growth, no proper branching would have resulted. The tree would have grown like a cab- bage. Hence it is to selection, and not to variation, -~ or rather to the causes of selection, and not to those of variation, that species or well-marked and widely separated forms of life are due. If we could study the past and present forms of life, not only in different continents, which we may compare to different indi- vidual trees of the same kind, or better, perhaps, to different main branches from the same trunk and roots, but could also study the past and present forms of life in different planets, then diversities in the general outlines would probably be seen sim- ilar to those which distinguish different kinds of trees, as the oak, the elm, and the pine; dependent, as in these trees, on differences in the physical and physiological properties of living matters in the different planets, supposing the planets, of course, to be capable of sustaining life, like the earth, or, at least, to have been so at some period in the history of the solar system. We might find that these general outlines of life in other planets resemble elms or oaks, and are not pyramidal in form like the pine, with a crowning animal like man to lead their growths. For man, for aught we know or could guess (but for the highly probable accidents of nature, which blight the topmost terminal bud and give ascendency to some lateral one), except for these accidents, man may have always been the crown of earthly creation, or always man, if you choose so to name and define the creature who, though once an as- [July, 100 The Genesis ~f Species. cidian (when the ascidian was the highest form of life), may have been the best of the ascidians. This would, perhaps, add nothing to the present value of the race, but it might satisfy the Platonic demand that the race, though not derived from a source quite worthy of it, yet should come from the 6est in nature. We are thus led to the final problem, at present an appar- ently insoluble mystery, of the origin of the first forms of life on the earth. On this Mr. Darwin uses the figurative language of religious mystery, and speaks of life with its several pow- ers being originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one. For this expression our author takes him to task, though really it could mean no more than if the gravita- tive properties of bodies were referred directly to the agency of a First Cause, in which the philosopher professed to believe; at the same time expressing his unwillingness to make hypoth- eses, that is, transcendental hypotheses, concerning occult modes of action. But life is, indeed, divine, and there is grand- eur in the view, as Mr. Darwin says, which derives from so simple yet mysterious an origin, and from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals. Our author, however, is much more advanced than Mr. Darwin on the question of the origin of life or archi- genesis, and the possibility of it as a continuous and present operation of nature. He admits what is commonly called spontaneous generation, believing it, however, to be not what in theology is understood by spontaneous, but only a sudden production of life by chemical synthesis out of inorganic elements. The absence of decisive evidence on this point does not deter him, but the fact that the doctrine can be reconciled to the strictest orthodoxy, and accords well with our~authors theory of sudden changes in species, appears to satisfy him of its truth. The theory of Pangenesis, on the other hand, invented by Mr. Darwin for a different purpose, though not inconsistent with the very slow generation of vital forces out of chemical actions, slow, that is, and insignificant compared to the normal actions and productions of chemical forces, is hardly compatible with the sudden and conspicuous appearance 1871.] The aenesis of Species. 101. of new life under the microscope of the observer. This theory was invented like other provisional theories, like Newtons corpuscular theory of light, like the undulatory theory of light (though this is no longer provisional), and like the chemical theory of atoms, for the purpose of giving a material or visual basis to the phenomena and empirical laws of life in general, by embodying in such supposed properties the phe- nomena of development, the laws of inheritance, and the vari- ous modes of reproduction, just as the chemical theory of atoms embodies in visual and tangible properties the laws of definite and multiple proportions, and the relations of gaseous volumes in chemical unions, together with the principle of isomerism and the relations of equivalent weights to specific heats. The theory of Pangenesis presents life and vital forces in their ulti- mate and essential elements as perfectly continuous, and in great measure isolated from other and coarser orders of forces, like the chemical and mechanical, except so far as these are the necessary theatres of their actions. Gemmules, or vital mole- cules, the smallest bodies which have separable parts under the action of vital forces, and of the same order as the scope of action in these forces, these minute bodies, though probably as much smaller than chemical molecules as these are smaller than rocks or pebbles, may yet exist in unorganized materials as well as in the germs of eggs, seeds, and spores, just as crvs- talline structures or chemical aggregations may be present in bodies whose form and aggregation are mainly due to mechan- ical forces. And, as in mechanical aggregations (like sedimen- tary rocks), chemical actions and aggregations slowly supervene and give in the metamorphosis of these rocks an irregular crys- talline structure, so it is supposable that finer orders of forces lying at the heart of fluid matter may slowly produce imperfect and irregular vital aggregations. But definite vital aggrega- tions and definite actions of vital forces exist, for the most part, in a world by themselves, as distinct from that of chemical forces, actions, and aggregations as these are from the mechan- ical ones of dynamic surface~geology, which produce and are embodied in visible and tangible masses through forces the most directly apparent and best understood; or as distinct as these are from the internal forces of geology and the masses of 102 The Genesis of Species. [July, continents and mountain formations with which they deal; or as distinct again as these are from the actions of gravity and the masses in the solar system; or, again, as these are from the unknown forces and conditions that regulate sidereal aggrega- tions and movements. These various orders of molar and molecular sizes are limited in our powers of conception only by the needs of hypothesis in the representation of actual phenomena under visual forms and properties. Sir William Thomson has lately determined the probable sizes of chemical molecules from the phenomena of light and experiments relat- ing to the law of the conservation of force. According to these results, these sizes are such that if a drop of water were to be magnified to the size of the earth, its molecules, or parts dependent on the forces of chemical physics, would be seen to range from the size of a pea to that of a billiard-ball. But there is no reason to doubt that in every such molecule there are still subordinate parts and structures; or that, even in these parts, a still finer order of parts and structures exists, at least to the extent of assimilated growth and simple division. Mr. Darwin supposes such growths and divisions in the vital gemmules; but our author objects (p. 230) that, to admit the power of spontaneous division and multiplication in such rudimentary structures seems a complete contradiction. The gemmules, by the hypothesis of Pangenesis, are the ultimate organized components of the body, the absolute organic atoms of which each body is composed; how then can they be divisi- ble? Any part of a gemmule would be an impossible (because less than possible) quantity. If it is divisible into still smaller organic wholes, as a germ-cell is, it must be made up, as the germ-cell is, of subordinate component atoms, which are then the true gemmules. But this is to suppose what is not im- plied in the theory (nor properly even in the chemical theory of atoms), that the sizes of these bodies are any more constant or determinate than those of visible bodies of any order. It is the order only that is determinate; but within it there may be wide ranges of sizes. A billiard-ball may be divided into parts as small as a pea, or peas may be aggregated into masses as large as a billiard-ball, without going beyond the order of forces that produce both sizes. Our author himself says afterwards 1871.] The aenesis of Species. 103 and in another connection (p. 290), It is possible that, in some minds, the notion may lurk that such powers arc simpler and easier to understand, because the bodies they affect are so minute! This absurdity hardly bears stating. We can easily conceive a being so small that a gemmule would be to it as large as St. Pauls would be to us. This argument, however, is intended to discredit the theory on the ground that it does not tend to simplify matters, and that we must rest somewhere in what the scholastics called substantial forms. But this criticism, to be just, ought to insist, not only that vital phe- nomena are due to a special nature, a peculiar innate power and activity, but that chemical atoms only complicate the mysteries of science unnecessarily; that corpuscles and undu- lations only hide difficulties; and that we ought to explain very simply that crystalline bodies are produced by polarity, and that the phenomena of light and vision are the effects of lu- minosity. This kind of simplicity is not, however, the pur- pose which modern science has in view; and, consequently, our real knowledges, as well as our hypotheses, are much more complicated than were those of the schoolmen. It is not impossible that vital phenomena themselves include orders of forces as distinct as the lowest vital are from chemical phe- nomena. May not the contrast of merely vital or vegetative phenomena with those of sensibility be of such orders? But, in arriving at sensibility, we have reached the very elements out of which the conceptions of size and movement are con- structed, the elements of the tactual and visual construc- tions that are employed by such hypotheses. Can sensibility and the movements governed by it be derived directly by chemical synthesis from the forces of inorganic elements? It is probable, both from analogy and direct observation, that they cannot (though some of the believers in spontaneous genera- tion think otherwise); or that they cannot, except by that great alchemic experiment which, employing all the influences of nature and all the ages of the world, has actually brought forth most if not all of the definite forms of life in the last and greatest work of creative power. CHAUNCEY WRIGHT. 104 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, ART. IV. THE MEANING OF REVENUE REFORM. WITH a revenue stamp dispensed by postmasters, a tax upon liquors of all sorts, and tobacco in all its forms, and by a wise adjustment of the tariff, which will put a duty only upon articles which we could dispense with, known as luxuries, and on those which we use more of than we produce, revenue enough may be raised, after a few years of peace, to fulfil all our obligations. Revenue reform, if it means this, has my hearty support. If it implies a collection of all the revenue for the support of government, for the payment of the principal and interest of the public debt, pensions, etc., by directly taxing the people, then I am against revenue reform. If it means failure to pro- vide the necessary means to defray all the expenses of govern- ment, and thereby repudiation of the public debt and pensions, then I am still more opposed to such kind of revenue reform. Revenue reform has not been defined by any of its advocates to my knowledge, but seems to be accepted as something which is to supply every mans wants, without any cost or effort on his part. A true revenue reform cannot be made in a day, but must be the work of national legislation and of time. As soon as the revenue can be dispensed with, all duty should be re- moved from coffee, tea, and other articles of universal use not produced by ourselves. The necessities of the country compel us to collect revenue from our imports. Message of the President of the United States, December, 18T0. Soon after the reading of the above lucid exposition of the principles of financial economy by the clerk of the House of Representatives, it is said that General Robert 0. Schenck happened to meet General Benjamin F. Butler, when the two great political chieftains, forgetting for the time all forhiier differences, formally congratulated each other that revenue reform was now dead; a conclusion doubtless due, in a great measure, to the circumstance that to minds ignorant or be- wildered things mysterious or enigmatic always seem unduly potential. If, however, revenue reform, according to the two most

104 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, ART. IV. THE MEANING OF REVENUE REFORM. WITH a revenue stamp dispensed by postmasters, a tax upon liquors of all sorts, and tobacco in all its forms, and by a wise adjustment of the tariff, which will put a duty only upon articles which we could dispense with, known as luxuries, and on those which we use more of than we produce, revenue enough may be raised, after a few years of peace, to fulfil all our obligations. Revenue reform, if it means this, has my hearty support. If it implies a collection of all the revenue for the support of government, for the payment of the principal and interest of the public debt, pensions, etc., by directly taxing the people, then I am against revenue reform. If it means failure to pro- vide the necessary means to defray all the expenses of govern- ment, and thereby repudiation of the public debt and pensions, then I am still more opposed to such kind of revenue reform. Revenue reform has not been defined by any of its advocates to my knowledge, but seems to be accepted as something which is to supply every mans wants, without any cost or effort on his part. A true revenue reform cannot be made in a day, but must be the work of national legislation and of time. As soon as the revenue can be dispensed with, all duty should be re- moved from coffee, tea, and other articles of universal use not produced by ourselves. The necessities of the country compel us to collect revenue from our imports. Message of the President of the United States, December, 18T0. Soon after the reading of the above lucid exposition of the principles of financial economy by the clerk of the House of Representatives, it is said that General Robert 0. Schenck happened to meet General Benjamin F. Butler, when the two great political chieftains, forgetting for the time all forhiier differences, formally congratulated each other that revenue reform was now dead; a conclusion doubtless due, in a great measure, to the circumstance that to minds ignorant or be- wildered things mysterious or enigmatic always seem unduly potential. If, however, revenue reform, according to the two most 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 105 respectable gentlemen referred to, is actually dead, and if General Grant, in common with many other foes, has slain it, then the time has properly come to write its biography. But if, on the other hand, revenue reform is not dead, but a stout, lusty fellow, growing stronger every day, and likely soon, in consciousness of his strength, to lay his fists vigor- ously about him, then it is still more important to inquire into its character and purposes; and to such an inquiry we propose to endeavor to return an answer. The term revenue reform, in its widest and possible future party acceptation, is a general one, expressive of a conviction on the part of those who adopt it that the existing financial system and the financial management or policy of the present govern- ment is not what it should be; not in harmony with the inter- ests and necessities of the whole country, and not at all in accord with the experience and requirements of the most advanced civilization. Those holding to such views demand reform, reform in the collection and apportionment of taxes or revenue; reform in the amount of revenue to be collected; reform in its expenditure or use when collected; reform in the selection and tenure of office of those by whom the national finances are managed; and finally, more than all else, they demand that there shall be continued, enlightened, and thor- ough investigation, a distinct recognition of the importance of investigation, and a willingness to adopt promptly the results of investigation when facts and arguments alike prove that these are likely to conduce to the welfare of the country. As a correlative to so much of positive declaration, the advocates of revenue reform also declare that, at the present time, there is neither good sense nor sound judgment displayed in the management of our national fiscal affairs; and further, that, under the present administration, all attempts to insure pro- gress through investigation have been studiously repressed and forbidden, rather than encouraged and stimulated.* * As one illustration in proof of this assertion, it may he mentioned that, in 1869, when it was proposed, in anticipation of the discussion of the income tax hy Congress at its approaching session, to prepare for public information a full state- ment of the working and distribution of this tax, the amount paid respectively hy the reci ,ients of large, moderate, and small incomes, and the amount and numher of individuals exempted under the law as then existing; the Secretary of 106 The lileaning of Revenue Reform. [July, The charge so frequently brought against the advocates of revenue reform, that they have no definite financial system to propose, so far from being a defect is in truth a claim to merit. The conditions on which the fiscal system of a great nation can be properly based and ordered, namely, the character and aptitudes of the people, the natural resources of the country, the indispensable requirements for revenue, and the like, are in each instance peculiar, and are to be learned only from ex- perience or continued investigation. True fiscal or revenue reform in the United States, where experience in dealing with a great debt and extensive taxation is very limited, and ten years ago was wholly wanting, must for many years be ten- tative, conservative, and somewhat in the nature of experimen- tation. It is only closet theorists, zealous partisans, and jack- of-all-trades who are ready to assert that the present fiscal system is all that it should be, or, on the other hand, that a new system may at once be framed and put in operation which shall remedy all difficulties. In short, there is at present suf- ficient work to be done in the way of revenue or fiscal reform which is practical, and the necessity of doing which all not blinded by prejudice or self-interest must admit, to obviate any necessity of constructing elaborate theories or to any great extent of anticipating the future; and it is in respect to just such work, and in combating the selfishness, the indifference, and the incompetence both legislative and executive which now array themselves in opposition to progress, that the advo- cates of revenue reform base their chief claim to popular sup- port. The scope and nature of this present work, furthermore, is coextensive with the present most important economical re- quirement of the country, which, embodied in a single brief expression, may be defined to be cheaper production, and, as a necessary consequence, larger consumption and more extended markets, domestic and foreign. To appreciate fully the truth and importance of this prop- osition, it is desirable to review briefly the leading incidents of our industrial and financial history since the year 1857,the the Treasury refused to allow the investigation to be undertaken, alleging substan- tially that it was not in accordance with the policy of the treasury to permit such facts to be made public. 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 107 year celebrated for its wide-spread commercial panic and dis- aster. In respect to the causes which led to those events it is unnecessary, for our purpose, to enter into any discussion. But it is most desirable to point out and recognize the won- derful celerity with which the country recovered from its finan- cial disasters, and attained a high degree of industrial pros- perity. Hardly had the smoke and dust of the fallen structures of credit and of fortune subsided, when the work of reconstruc- tion began. The people, one and all, felt that the day of spec- ulation and inflated values had at least, for a time, gone by; and that the necessity for hard work and for the exercise of skill and economy had come, so that during the next three years, or from the spring of 1858 to the spring of 1861 inclu- sive, moie substantial progress was made than in any equal period in the history of the country, either before or since, it was in that series of years that the commercial tonnage of the United States rose for the first and last time to upwards of five and a half millions of tons (5,353,868 in 185960, and 5,539,813 in 1860 61); that the annual crop of cotton ex- ceeded five millions of bales (5,196,944 bales of 400 pounds each, United States census 1860); that the value of the exports of manufactured cotton approximated eleven millions per an- num ($ 10,934,796 in 185960; $ 3,527,736 in 1870); while the nation at large purchased and consumed the largest per capita quantities of sugar, coffee, and cotton cloth. The num ber of miles of railway constructed and the number of cotton spindles put in operation during those years was also far greater than for any former equal period; while the number of pounds of cotton which the manufacturers of the United States con- verted into yarn, cloth, or other products for the year 1859 60, exceeded the quantity consumed for the same purpose for the year 1870 by over fifteen millions of pounds, or forty-six thousand bales of 461 pounds each.* During the same time our purchases and imports from for- eign countries greatly increased, but our exports and sales of * The consumption of cotton, North and South, for the year 1859 60 is re- turned at 928,043 bales, of the average net weight of 461 pounds per hale. The total consumption of the United States for the year 1869 70 was 881,861 bales of approximately the same weight. 108 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, domestic products and merchandise increased in an equal or greater proportion; so that, during each of the years under con~ sideration, the balance of indebtedness remained uniformly in favor of the United States; our imports for the years 1858,1859, and 1860 being $282,000,000, $ 338,000,000, and $362,000,000, while the exports for the same periods were $323,000,000, $355,000,000, $399,000,000, respectively, gold valuations. American coarse cottons, supplanting the English, were rapidly becoming the standard foreign textile in the markets of India, China, Canada, and South America; so much so, indeed, that the counterfeiting of American trade-marks was extensively resorted to by European manufacturers as a pro- tective, though fraudulent necessity. The cane-bottom chair and other forms of light and graceful, but cheap, American furniture had come to constitute the essential equipment of nearly every well-to-do household in the British and Spanish American possessions, in Central America, South America, the Cape of Good Hope, and Australia; while to all these same countries went annually, in American vessels, a steadily in- creasing supply of hardware, agricultural implements, boots and shoes; one seventh part of our manufacture of fur and felt hats; carriages, omnibuses, and street-cars; cordage, fish-lines, and nets; printing-presses, ink, and paper; candles, gunpowder, wooden-ware, steam-engines, machinery of every description; and last, but not least, garden-seeds and patent medicines. Product being thus mutually and profitably exchanged for product, commerce flourished; ships were employed; domestic manufacturing industry extended and became diversified, and, what was more important, the increasing products of American agriculture found annually an increasing home market ; the aggregate gold value of the breadstuffs exported for the four years ending June 30, 1861, having been only $1,000,000 less than the aggregate gold value of the same products exported during the four years ending June 30, 1869, although the pro- ductive power of the country in respect to agriculture, owing to the increase of population and an increased use of machinery, was undoubtedly at least thirty per cent greater in the latter than in the former period. Let the advocates of special theo- ries say what they may, facts and experience alike prove that 1871.] The ilileaning of Revenue Reform. 109 there never was a period in the history of the United States when wealth accumulated more rapidly and distributed itself more equitably, when the whole population was so actively and fully employed, and when the product per capita was so great as during the three years immediately preceding the outbreak of the Rebellion. And, as further evidence in support of this proposition, we would cite the testimony of Hon. Justin S. Morrill, who, in a speech as chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, January 24, 1867, characterized the year 1860 as a year of large production and as much general prosperity as any, perhaps, in our history. * And yet, strange to tell, the years under consideration were the ones in which the average rates of the tariff on the aggre- gate value of all imports ranged from 14.6 to 14.8 per cents; and on dutiable imports from 19 to 20 per cent, the very low- est, with the exception of the first few years of our national existence, that we have ever enacted; and stranger yet is the circumstance that people and politicians alike took so little in- terest in the subject of the tariff, that a search through the records of Congress or the files of the leading newspapers of the period will hardly afford a single paragraph or allusion to the subject.f And, as having an important bearing on two of the most difficult and vexed questions of the day, attention should be directed to two additional facts of not a little interest: the first of which is, that, during the years 1859 60, two iron sea- going steamers, of 1,150 tons burden each, were constructed in the port of Boston on contract on terms as favorable as could then or now be obtained in Great Britain; and the second, even more significant, that, during this period of low tariffs, * Congressional Globe, Second Session, Thirty-ninth Congress, Part I. p. 724. t As it is for the interests of the advocates of certain theories to endeavor to question these statements, we give herewith, in tabular form, the imports, duties, and average rates of duty for the fiscal years 1858, 1859, and 1860: IMPORTS. Per cent Per cent Years. Customs. Free. Dutiable. Total. on on Dutiable. Aggregate. 1858 $ 41,789,621 $80,319,275 $ 202,293,875 $282,613,150 20 14.8 1859 49,565,284 79,721,116 259,047,014 838,768,130 19 14.6 1860 63,187,511 90,841,749 279,872,327 862,166,254 19 14.7 110 The Jifeaning of Revenue Reform. [July, when the cotton-manufacturing industry was increasing with unexampled rapidity, and the mills of the United States were spinning far more cotton than they are at present, the repre- sentatives of this same great industry in Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island voluntarily reduced the hours of labor of their operatives from twelve to eleven, without reducing wages or materially diminishing product. These facts, apart from their general interest, are of not a little significance: first, from the circumstance that they indi- cate most clearly what would be the condition of the country were its finances and industry in an altogether normal and healthy condition; and, secondly, from the demonstration they afford that the country, from 1858 to 1860, inclusive, was, in a great measure, industrially independent, and that, too, notwith- standing that the difference in favor of Europe in the cost of the capital employed in manufacturing and in the wages of labor taking the purchasing power of the wages into consideration was as great then as now; or, to put the case more forcibly, the country, commercially and industrially, had then assumed the offensive in respect to its trade with foreign nations, instead of, as now, standing wholly on the defensive. The immediate effect of the war was a partial derangement and paralysis of domestic industry; but, as large drafts were made upon the industrial classes to fill the ranks of the army, and as the demands for food, clothing, munitions of war, and the elements of transportation increased and became enormous, an artificial stimulus was soon given to every branch of domes- tic production, and every person, throughout the loyal States, who was willing to work, found employment at highly remu- nerative wages, while all who had anything to sell found a market at high prices. Then it was that one characteristic of the typical American civilization, viz, that of adapting itself to circumstances and rising superior to accidents, was displayed as never before. Thus, notwithstanding the withdrawal directly or indirectly, during the years 1863 64 and 1864 65, of not less than a million and a half of able-bodied men from productive employ- ment in the loyal States alone, and in great part from the business of agriculture, the yearly products of the soil and of 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 111 the workshop became greater rather than less; machines were substituted in the place of meti, while the practice of economy and the hours of labor were voluntarily increased. Thus, dur- ing the years 1863 and 1864, the number of reaping and mow- ing machines manufactured and sold in the United States were enormously multiplied; while the State of Indiana, which, in 1859, produced 15,219,000 bushels of wheat, in 1863 increased her annual product to upwards of 20,000,000 bushels, and that, too, notwithstanding the circumstance that, in 1862 63, out of her population of 1,250,000, 124,000 fighting men were drawn to supply the ranks of the national armies. Another interesting circumstance, to which public attention has not heretofore been particularly called, was the very great stimulus which, during the latter years of the war, was given to the exportation of certain articles of domestic product by reason of the very high premium on gold, which, being often from fifty to seventy-five per cent greater than the advance in the price of the labor and material employed in domestic pro- duction, increased the purchasing power of the foreign con- sumer; or, what was the same thing, decreased the relative cost of such articles of American product as were available for exportation and sale in foreign markets.* * As this circumstance is one of great interest, not only as a matter of history and as a contribution to the science of political economy, but also from the demon- stration it affords of the impolicy of the existing and, we may say, the administra- tive arid popular fiscal theory, viz, that it is desirable to rcdace the premium upon gold, irrespective of any measure looking to a simultaneous reduction of the cost of domestic production through a reduction of taxation and the volume of paper cur- rency, attention is asked to the following table, showing the comparative exports of certain articles of dojnestic product in the fiscal years 185960 and 186465, respectively 185960. 186465. Boots and shoes, $782,525 gold, $2,098,165 currency.1 Carrigra, 816,973 1.622,780 Fruits 206,055 1,001,802 Hemp cordage, 246,572 979,921 Uttier taunuthetures of hemp, 27,814 392,516 Nails, 188,754 947,658 Saddlery, 71.332 228,746 Trunks and valises, 50,771 2o9,868 Glass and glass-ware, 277,948 1,268,533 Bacon ond barns, 2,273,768 10,536,608 Butter, 1,144,321 7,292,715 Cheese, 1,565,000 11,697,746 1ohacco (unmanufactured), 15,906,547 41,625,226 Locomotives and machinery, 9,948 3,510,192 1 The average premium on gold for the fiscal year 1864 was 156; for the fiscal year 1865, 202. 112 The Meaning of .Revenue Reform. [July, With a reduction in the premium on gold consequent upon the termination of the war, the decline in the volume and cur- rency value of many articles of export was equally noticeable: the export of boots and shoes declining from $ 2,098,165 in 1864 65 to $ 475,607 in 186869; of nails during the same period from $ 947,658 to $290,380; printing-presses and type from $ 295,781 to $ 64,544; and hats and caps from $ 456,933 to $ 96,744. In fact, the record of these changes constitutes one of the most interesting portions of our recent economical his- tory; and the failure of our fiscal administrators to heed or to understand the inferences from this record has cost the coun- try, as will be hereafter shown, for the last calendar year alone, a sum which cannot be directly estimated at less than from seventy-five to a hundred millions of dollars. The termination of the war, in 1865, was also the occasion of immense industrial changes. The million and a half of men directly or indirectly engaged through the army in the work of destruction were returned to productive employments. The enormous demands of the government for service and supplies of every kind were almost immediately terminated; while the decline in the premium on gold, as above stated, occasioned a most marked falling off in the volume and value of many articles of domestic export. Various agencies, however, at once came into action to prevent that stagnation and derangement of the business of the country, which, at first thought, would seem to have been almost inevitable. The stock on hand of agricultural products had been reduced to a minimum, owing to the enormous con- sumption of the men and animals of the army, to a partial failure of the crops, and to an unnaturally stimulated export; and, with the exception of cotton and woollen goods, there was no accumulation of the products of the so-called manufacturing industries. The South, with its population of twelve millions, was, moreover, destitute of nearly everything essential to ren- der possible the continuance of civilization or even life itself; and yet the South, through its retention of cotton, was in a con- dition to purchase largely and pay promptly for its necessities; as is shown by the fact that the export value of unmanufac- tured cotton advanced from the small sum of $6,836,000 in 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 113 1864 65, to the large amount of $281,000,000 in the succeed- ing year 1865 66. In addition to these circumstances, which afforded large opportunities for the profitable employment of labor, the dis- bursements of the government for arrears of pay, bounties, pensions, and the settlement of contracts during the three years immediately subsequent to the war, in themselves con- stituted a very great stimulus to consumption, and were there- fore equivalent to the creation of new domestic markets or to the continuance of those previously existing. The amount thus disbursed from the 1st of April, 1865, to the 1st of June, 1869, was in round figures about $700,000,000; a great part or all of which was immediately invested in the purchase of food, clothing, shelter, implements, transportation, or business, and really constituted a fund on which the men of our volun- teer army re-established themselves in the pursuits of peace. It is therefore obvious that it has not been possible Tor the country, uiitil within a comparatively recent period, to resume its natural industrial relations, or to determine by actual ex- perience the full effect of the burden of its increased taxation, or of the laws and methods under which such taxation is im- posed and collected. But the time has come when such an examination can be properly instituted; and when, exceptional disturbing causes having ceased, we may determine our present economical position, and with a reasonable degree of assurance forecast the future. No one would have a right to expect that the country, after experiencing a gigantic war and incurring an immense debt, would at once recover all it had lost, or that, having sown the whirlwind, it could escape reaping the storm. But for the time let us put aside the question of drawbacks and liabilities, and, like prudent merchants, take account of our resources and capacities, in order to see what we may legitimately expect in the future. We are a nation of forty millions, unsurpassed in intelligence, indomitable in will, fertile in expedient. Our territory, washed by three oceans, and extending from the arctic to the tropics, is too vast for most persons even yet to realize that its geograph- ical centre is not far from the head-waters of the Columbia River, VOL. CXIII. NO. 232. 8 114 The Afeaning of Revenue Reform. [July, and is eight hundred miles west of the Mississippi. Its variety of soil, of climate, and of crops is so great and its means of intercommunication so ample, that a deficiency of food which, in other countries, is ever a source of anxiety, is, in the United States, a matter of impossibility, inasmuch as the very condi- tions which result in injury to one staple in one section are productive of benefit elsewhere to another. We have a form of government in which the will of the people constitutes the law. We have a thousand million acres of fertile land as yet unoc- cupied. We have an annual immigration of 350,000, mainly persons who have passed the age of childhood, ready to occupy, to produce, to consume, and pay taxes, and whose annual money value to the country cannot be estimated at less than $300,000,000. We have the largest area of land in the world especially adapted to the cultivation of cotton, but of which not three acres in a hundred have ever, at any one time, been put under cultivation. We have more coal, the source of mo- tive-power, than is possessed by all other countries together. In short, we have all the conditions under which labor can attain its maximum of productiveness, and capital receive its greatest reward. Therefore, if there is any place on the earth where labor and capital can and ought to harmonize, that place is the United States; and if to-day they are not in harmony, the obstacles are all artificial, not one natural. Pauper labor, moreover, so often ranted about and so often prophesied, can- not exist, and never has existed, except through mans igno- rance and shiftlessness, in any country where fertile land can be had for the occupation or purchased by the acre at less than an average days wages; for the free possession and cultivation of fertile land always insures to its possessor a generous support: and when manufacturing or other occupations afford less than this, the tendency will be to quit the latter and embrace the former. Such, then, is a partial statement of the conditions under which the nation exists. They are more favorable than have ever been bestowed upon any other people. They bring pros~ perity, great and abiding, which, as experience shows, even the calamity of civil war can only check, not destroy. But right here it is especially important to note and bear in mind that 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 115 these conditions of prosperity are in the main natural, the gift of God, entirely independent of laws, certainly of any recent legislation, and that the prosperity they entail would be es- sentially the same whether the government was free or mon- archical, or its administration Republican or Democratic. This proposition is the more worthy of attention, since, as we believe, it is the want of a clear appreciation of its truth that to-day offers the greatest obstacle to the attainment of a much larger prosperity and a much greater degree of national progress; the inevitable results of natural growth being constantly and most impudently put forward as the consequence of legislation, when, if the whole truth were shown, it would be found that nearly every instance of growth that can be cited within the last ten years has been made in spite of legislation, and that legislation, so far from having helped to national progress, has really been only a hindrance. And this unfounded assumption, this con- necting together as cause and consequence results which have legitimately no such connection, more than all else blinds the nation to its true material condition, and is held to absolve us from the necessity of investigation and reform. We look for, plenty, and we find an almost universal com- plaint, among the producing or laboring classes, that the receipts from income or wages are entirely disproportionate to the expenses of living. We enumerate our resources and predi- cate abundant employment for all willing to work, yet we find enforced idleness, ships unemployed, commerce departing from its old and legitimate channels, producers of great staple arti- cles complaining that they are working to no profit, imports increasing, and exports of domestic manufactures relatively decreasing, trade dull, collections difficult. We feel that we have a right to look for harmony between labor and capital, because we are certain that natural conditions in the United States are such as ought to secure for both an ample reward; and instead of this, we find antagonism, strikes, combinations, trade-unions, suspension of production, although those who advocate these measures in Europe frankly confess that they discover no similar necessity for the same in the United States. We would point to the further most singular fact, that during the last few years the representatives of almost every indus 116 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, trial profession in the country the manufacturers of cotton, of wool, of pig-iron, of boots and shoes, of coal, of salt, and of petroleum; the miller, the lumberman, and the hatter; the makers of paper, of glass, and of nails have met in conven- tion and resolved that it is expedient to diminish production: as if there could be any such thing as over-production so long as there were any hungry to be fed, naked to be clothed and warmed, or homeless to be sheltered; or, as if abundance of any of the necessities and comforts of life could ever be any- thing but a blessing. We find, furthermore, notwithstanding our vast resources, that out of all our multiplied products there are practically only two or three which cannot be produced un- der more favorable circumstances elsewhere, viz, cotton, gold, and petroleum, and that any advantage we may have in respect to these is due to natural causes rather than to our own efforts, and extends no further than to the material in its most ele- mentary or unelaborated condition.* Now it neither avails anything nor is it pertinent to attempt answering these statements by referring to our constant increase in wealth, product, population, and territory, or to fall back with the Secretary of the Treasury in opinionated self-complacency upon the circumstance that he knows of somebody in the back country of Massachusetts who had two pigs and three liens last year, while ten years ago the same person had only one pig and no hens; that as he looks out of the car windows, in travel- ling from Groton to Washington along the richest and most densely populated section of our country, he observes every one busy; and that after he gets to Washington he finds the reve- nues from taxation coming in without interruption. Neither will it much longer be considered satisfactory to say, with the President, that there is gold enough in the Rocky Mountains and profit enough in San Domingo to pay the national debt and * The value of the exports of the United States for the calendar year 1870 is returned at $ 506,000,000 currency, of which the following constitute the princi- pal items: cotton, $ 219373,000; petroleum and other oils, $37,692,000; bullion, $ 66,097,000: total, $323,162,000. If to this we add the value of the breadstuffs exported, $ 65,000,000; tobacco, $ 18,000,000; provi ions, $29,000,000; and oil- cake, $3,768,140, the total aggregate becomes $439,000,000, leaving but a compar- atively trifling amount to repiesent the value of the exported surplus of all other industries. 1871.] The Afeaning of Revenue Reform. 117 make us all rich; as if a dollar earned in Arizona, or in a fever- stricken island of the tropics, that for two centuries has resisted all attempts at civilization, were worth any more than a dollar created by raising wheat in Iowa, packing pork in Cincinnati, or making shoes in Massachusetts, especially when the min- ing statistics indicate that every dollar taken from White Pine has cost the country a dollar and a quarter to get it; and his- tory proves that all the wealth that has ever been gained from San Domingo has been watered with tears, crusted with blood, and wrung from unwilling labor by the lash. In opposition to these views of the administration, a very ugly series of statistics may be presented. Thus, if we take as one measure of national prosperity the comparative use and demand for sugar and coffee, we shall find that the consumption of each of these staple articles was considerably less per capita in 1869 than it was in 1859, although, during the intervening ten years, four millions of blacks had passed from a condition of non-consumers to that of consumers.* Manufacturers and dealers also state that our people use a comparatively smaller number of boots, shoes, and hats now than they did before the war; while it is positively known that the consumption of cotton cloth (measured in pounds) was less in the United States dur- ing the year 1870, with 39,000,000 of people, than it was in 1859, with 30,000,000. What answer, we would ask, is to be made to these state- ments? Do our people like sugar and coffee less now than then? Have their necessities and uses for boots, shoes, hats, and cotton cloth been obviated by any change in climate or by the introduction of a new civilization from San Domingo? Or is it that our population desire and require these things no less, bu~ have less of ability to purchase and obtain them? Or, as bearing upon the general business of the country, what is to be said of the circumstance that the m~rcantile * Consumption of sugar, 1859, (Atlantic slope) . 965,852,160 lbs. 1869, . 1,104,093,760 coffee, 1859, 99,380 tons. 1869, 108,479 Population, 1859, 30,000,000 1869, 38,600,000 See Morings (New York) Commercial Sugar and Coffee circulars. 118 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, agencies report the business failures for 1870 as twenty-five per cent in excess of those of 1869, and thirty-three per cent in excess of those of 1868; or, to use their own language, that the surplus which has been added to the wealth of the mercantile community by the results of the years transactions is very trifling. A conclusion which also finds confirmation in the fact that the returns of the New York clearing-house for the year 1870 show that, although the bank loans of the year fluctuated widely, yet they averaged no higher than they did two years before, or in 1868,* although from 1850 to 1860 the increase in the business of the country, if measured by the reported increase of wealth, would seem to have been in excess of ten per cent per annum. Take another series of facts. No nation or community pro- duces all that is essential to its civilization and comfort; but Providence, as though desirous of enforcing the doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man, has bestowed upon particular regions particular or exclusive advantages in the way of pro- duction, and has thus made nations and men mutually interde- pendent. Hence has arisen what we term commerce, or the exchange of product against product, the results of one mans labor here for the results of another mans labor there. It is upon this basis that New York exchanges with Ohio, and Ohio, in turn, with California. It is upon this basis that Great Brit- ain, France, and Germany, and even Brazil and the Sandwich Islands, carry on their commerce. But the United States, in respect to its foreign trade, has had of late a way peculiar to itself. Disregarding the maxim of its earliest political econo- mist, Pay as you go, it buys every year from foreign nations a good deal more than it pays for with the products of similar industries, and gives its obligations in various forms for future settlements; all of which, however, may be the sign of a new civilization. But it pays in part for its annual purchases, and pays for them how? With such of its products as repre- sent the highest intellect and skill of its people, and, of course, * ~~ should not in fairness be overlooked, in this connection, that the difference of fifteen per cent in the value of the greenback dollar, as between January 1, 1868, and January 1, 1871, shows that the fall in the gold premium, involving a fall in prices generally, materially diminishcd the amount of loans required for carrying the same quantity of commodities. 120 Tke Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, on national account about $1,000,000,000, funded debt; and on account of railroads and other corporations about $600,000,000 more. On the national part of this debt we pay our interest regularly; on the remainder we pay on part, and on part we do not pay; but the whole aggregate of annual interest for which we feel bound to provide cannot be less than $80,000,000. If to this we add $24,000,000 to represent the excess of freights carried in foreign bottoms, a very low estimate, and as much more to represent the excess of annual expenditure of Americans travelling abroad over the expenditures of foreigners travelling in the United States, and deduct $30,000,000 a large estimate to represent the specie brought in by immigrants, we have an annual aggre- gate balance of at least $ 156,000,000 accruing indebtedness; which was settled last year by exporting $56,000,000 net of specie or bullion, or $23,000,000 more than the previous year, and going into debt for the balance. Now, while no writer of any of the modern schools of econo- mists supports or indorses in any degree the old balance of trade notion, that a nation, in order to be prosperous, must always export more than it imports; and while we must recog- nize to the fullest extent the truth of the proposition that gold is as much the product of our industry as wheat, cotton, or petroleum, and that there is no better use that can be made of it than to pay our debts, must we not at the same time frankly confess to a feeling that we do not altogether like that condition of things which induces foreign nations to re- quire of us gold in the settlement of exchanges, rather than cloth, furniture, or hardware; and that too, not because they want our gold in itself more than they do our cloth, our furni- ture, and our hardware, but because they know that our gold will buy much more of these same articles in some other mar- ket than it will in our own: and as Americans and friends of our industry, would we prefer that condition of affairs which would foster those branches that require the most diversified and skilled labor rather than those in which chance, as in mining, constitutes an element of success, or in which the most unskilled labor stands on a par in the way of production with that which is the best paid and most intelligent? 120 Tke Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, on national account about $ 1,000,000,000, funded debt; and on account of railroads and other corporations about $600,000,000 more. On the national part of this debt we pay our interest regularly; on the remainder we pay on part, and on part we do not pay; but the whole aggregate of annual interest for which we feel bound to provide cannot be less than $80,000,000. If to this we add $24,000,000 to represent the excess of freights carried in foreign bottoms, a very low estimate, and as much more to represent the excess of annual expenditure of Americans travelling abroad over the expenditures of foreigners travelling in the United States, and deduct $30,000,000 a large estimate to represent the specie brought in by immigrants, we have an annual aggre- gate balance of at least $156,000,000 accruing indebtedness; which was settled last year by exporting $56,000,000 net of specie or bullion, or $23,000,000 more than the previous year, and going into debt for the balance. Now, while no writer of any of the modern schools of econo- mists supports or indorses in any degree the old balance of trade notion, that a nation, in order to be prosperous, must always export more than it imports; and while we must recog- nize to the fullest extent the truth of the proposition that gold is as much the product of our industry as wheat, cotton, or petroleum, and that there is no better use that can be made of it than to pay our debts, must we not at the same time frankly confess to a feeling that we do not altogether like that condition of things which induces foreign nations to re- quire of us gold in the settlement of exchanges, rather than cloth, furniture, or hardware; and that too, not because they want our gold in itself more than they do our cloth, our furni- ture, and our hardware, but because they know that our gold will buy much more of these same articles in some other mar- ket than it will in our own: and as Americans and friends of our industry, would we prefer that condition of affairs which would foster those branches that require the most diversified and skilled labor rather than those in which chance, as in mining, constitutes an element of success, or in which the most unskilled labor stands on a par in the way of production with that which is the best paid and most intelligent? 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 121 But as showing more clearly the abnormal condition of our present system of foreign exchanges, let us take as example the trade between the United States and the Argentine iRepub- lic of South America, an example, although before made use of, is nevertheless always pertinent. The necessities of trade between the two countries belong in the first instance to the United States, for we have not a supply of domestic hides suf- ficient to meet our consumption of leather; and in addition, have practically no supply whatever of either goat-skins or horse-hair. The Argentine Republic has these articles espe- cially to sell, and if she is willing to dispose of them on terms equally advantageous with other nations, it is not a matter of choice on the part of the United States whether she will trade, but a matter of necessity. It is also worth while to diverge for a moment from the sub- ject under consideration, and see how important is this supply of foreign hides to domestic industry, and how good a thing the United States makes of it. Thus the value of all the hides and skins annually used in the United States, both foreign and domestic, is about $ 70,000,000; but the value which labor and capital adds to these same hides and skins when they are manufactured into boots and shoes, trunks, har- nesses, sadlery, and the like is at least $ 225,000,000 ; the major part of which large sum represents the wages paid to the 180,000 operatives engaged in these branches of manufac- ture, a number far greater than is employed in any other special department of domestic industry. As might be inferred from this showing, the United States continues to purchase hides from the Argentine States, and continues to add to her wealth and to the sources of employ- ment for her people by doing so; but in thus purchasing we find that the United States stands on a different footing from other commercial nations. Thus the Argentine States in send- ing us hides and skins require an equivalent; they have no forests, few manufactures, and an insufficient supply of bread- stuffs; they therefore require lumber, flour, textile fabrics, especially coarse cottons and calicoes, furniture, ready-made clothing, wagons, hats, boots and shoes, sadlery, paints, paper, hardware, and a thousand other articles which the United 122 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, States is capable of producing in almost unlimited quantity, is very desirous of selling, and with many of which, further- more, it has been claimed that our markets are glutted by over-production. The people of the Argentine Republic, more- over, do not desire payment for their products in the precious metals, and, if obliged to receive them, must immediately ex- change them for the commodities named, which are absolutely essential to their existence as a civilized people. Now, as the United States stands to the Argentine Republic in the relation of its best customer, and as the two nations are closely assimilated to each other through continental position and a common form of government, and as the former is especially capable and desirous of supplying to the latter the commodities which it absolutely needs, it might naturally be supposed that the trade between the two would be reciprocal. But the contrary is the case. The United States bought, in 1870, upwards of 1/tree dollars worth of Argentine pro- ductions for every one of domestic product sent in return; or $6,414,600 imports, gold valuation, in 1870, as compared with $2,281,000 exports, currency valuation, in the same year; while in the case of Great Britain the average of imports into the Argentine States for the last few years have been four times greater than the exports received from the latter coun- try: thus indicating that the adverse balance in the exchanges of the United States with the Argentine Republic is settled in the first instance by Great Britain.* * A recent writer, indorsed by the New York Tribune, has endeavored to show that this illustration amounts to nothing as an argument, for the reason that the exports from the United States to Buenos Ayres have increased during the last few years, and are apparently more favorable than they were previous to the war. But this pleading is a mere attempt to avoid the real issue presented; for making whatever allowance we may for an increase of exports from the United States to Buenos Ayres, the fact nevertheless remains, that the balance of ex- changes in this trade for the year 1870 was unfavorable to the United States in the ratio of three to one; and as further showing how dangerous a little knowledge is on these subjects, the critics referred to have overlooked the fact that a very considerable part of the export trade of the Argentine States with the United States, namely, wool, has bmn in a great degree destroyed prohibited by the wool tariff of 1867; and that if we had imported from the Argentine States in 1870, in addition te other articles, the proportion and value of wool imported in 1865, the balance of exchanges between the two countries would have been even more unfavorable in 1870 for the United States than it was during 1859. 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 123 This result is due, not to any unwillingness on the part of the people of the Argentine Republic to exchange product for product with the United States, but simply and solely to the fact that the prices of nearly all commodities in the United States are so much higher than in all other markets of the world, that reciprocal trade with the South Americans is both disadvantageous and impossible. But the United States must have the hides and the skins and the horse-hair, and being unable to procure them in exchange for its cloth, its furniture, its flour, and its hardware, obtains them in this way: not by sending gold and silver direct to Buenos Ayres, but by pur- chasing, in the first instance, a bill of exchange on London, paying a bankers profit, and probably effecting the purchase to a greater or less extent by selling at a discount the govern- ments or a railroads obligation of indebtedness. The debt thus transferred to Great Britain is settled by the exportation to Buenos A.yres of British manufactures, paying another profit, in British vessels paying freights and commissions; and when the British vessel has discharged her original cargo, she loads again with hides, skins, and horse-hair for the United States, while American vessels remain unbuilt and unemployed, and American manufacturers meet in convention and pass reso- lutions declaring that there is an over-production. And this peculiar and unnatural commerce, which has been described in detail as regards the Argentine States, goes on in much the same way month after month and year after year with other foreign nations, until there is not now one single country with which the United States exchanges on terms as commercially favorable as it did in 185960. In proof of this we ask attention to the following statis- tics : GREAT BRITAIN. 1860. 1869. Exports, domestic produce, $ 196,260,000 gold. $ 163,195,000 currency. Imports, 138,596,000 201,799,000 gold. SPANISH WEST INDIES. $13,713,000 gold. $15,479,000 currency. 41,450,000 69,903,000 gold. Exports, domestic produce, Imports, 124 The Af~aning of Revenue Reform. [July, SWEDEN AND SWEDISH WEST INDIES. 1860. 1869. Exports, domestic produce, $1,513,876 gold. $ 166,974 currency. Imports, 532,984 1,103,611 gold. MExIco. Exports, domestic produce, $3,338,739 gold. $ 3,836,000 currency. Imports, 6,935,872 7,232,000 gold. SANDWICH ISLANDS. Exports, domestic produce, $637,489 gold. $ 700,962 currency. Imports, 367,859 1,298,085 gold. CANADA. 1870. Exports, domestic produce, $ 18,667,000 gold. $17,765,712 gold. Imports, 23,851,000 39,507,842 In respect to the remarkable change in the trade between the United States and Canada shown in this accompanying table, Mr. J. N. Lamed, in his Report on the State of Trade between tile United States and the British Possessions in North America, made to the Secretary of the Treasury, February, 1871, says: Down to the close of 1862, when the derangement of the currency, the inflation of prices, and the disturbance of industries, produced by the war, began to work their effects, we had been selling the Provinces largely in excess of what we bought from them. The aggregate of their imports from us during the nine years ending with 1862 eight of which were the years of the reciprocity treaty was $ 172,641,372. rrhe aggregate of our imports from them in the same period was $ 133,230,473. The balance of trade in our favor was $39,410,899. But in 1863 the balance shifted to the other side, aud ever since the preponderance against us has steadily and rapidly increased, until now we are exchanging commodities for little more than one half that we buy from the British Provinces. Indeed, the exchange of our own productions covers less than one half of the amount that we are im- porting from the Provinces. Comment upon the unsatisfactoriness of this state of trade seems to be quite unnecessary. The adverse balance is vastly too great to be analyzed into commercial profits, as an apparently adverse balance of trade often is; and, moreover, the mode in which it is here arrived at, by comparison of the import entries in each country from the other, excludes almost nIl the elements of such analysis. 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 125 The following table also exhibits the reduction which has taken place in the export of certain products of domestic in- dustry, comparing 1860, the year before the war, with 1869, the last year for which the returns are readily accessible Boots and shoes, Wool and woollens, Carriages, Candles, Pot and pearl ashes, Books and paper, Manufactured tobacco, Soap, Trunks and valises, Paints and varnish, Gunpowder, Manufactures of marble and stone, indiarubber, Beer, ale, and porter, Garden and other seeds, Ilides and skins, Animals, Exports, 1880, gold. $ 782,525 389,512 816,973 760,528 882,820 564,066 3,337,083 494,405 37,748 223,809 467,972 176,239 240,841 53,573 596,910 1,036,260 1,855,091 Exports, 1869, gold. $356,290 237,325 299,487 324,995 187,004 290,098 2,101,335 384,950 24,800 91,452 122,562 65,515 128,216 9,755 44,186 219,918 689,508 Now, this whole trade exhibit, notwithstanding all that may be written and said in respect to the advantage of using the cheap capital of other countries, has a bad look; bad, because it is not the way in which we formerly did business, bad, be- cause it is not the way in which Great Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, and Holland conduct their foreign exchanges; bad, because it means debt, for which obligations of future payment, bearing annual interest, are given in settlement; bad, because it tends to strengthen and increase a present national tendency towards debt, debt national, debt railroad and corporate, debt municipal and individual. We certainly should look with some distrust upon the man- agement of a farmer who, with plenty of the most fertile land and abundance of labor standing ready and anxious for employ- ment, should borrow money for the purchase of wheat, corn, and cabbages for his own consumption; and, although he might prove that it was for his advantage to adopt this method of procedure, we should still think it worthy of inquiry, whether the conditions which thus made it for his advantage were not in themselves forced and unnatural. And then, again, in corn- 126 like Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, mon with many, we have a desire, but little expectation, that we may, during the next quarter of a century, get back to the recognition and use of a real standard of value in making our exchanges; but there is clearly no chance of maintaining specie payments, even if we should once resume, so long as our annual obligations to foreigners for indebtedness, over and above the value of all ordinary merchandise appropriated in liquidation, exceeds three times our whole annual product of the precious metals, and so long, moreover, as our legislation makes it an advantage to our foreign creditors to receive specie in pay- ment, or acknowledgments of debt on which there is to be a continually accruing burden of interest. Again, what a terrible exhibition do the statistics of our commercial marine present, comparing 1870 with 1860, and remembering that the population of the United States has increased at least twenty-three per cent in the interval. We ask attention to them. Total registered and licensed tonnage 186061 5,589,813 186970 4,246,507 Tonnage employed in the coasting trade, which by law is protected from all foreign competition 186061 2,657,292 186970 2,595,328 Tonnage employed in the cod-fishery 186061 127,310 186970 . 82,612 Tonnage employed in mackerel-fishery 186061 80,596 186667 (last return) 31,498 Again, it appears from statistics published during the present year by the Treasury Department, that prior to 1862 the tonnage of American vessels entered at the ports of the British Empire was double the tonnage of British vessels entered at ports of the United States, but that since 1865 the tonnage of British vessels entered at ports of the United States has been double the tonnage of American vessels entered at ports of the British Empire. 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 127 In 1860 the number of entries in the trade between the United States and Brazil comprised 345 American and 118 foreign vessels; in 1869 this proportion had changed to 114 American and 359 foreign. In 1860 there were 68 entries of American vessels in the trade between the United States and the Argentine Republic, and 8 foreign; in 1869 the proportion was 39 American and 33 foreign. In the direct trade with Great Britain, the entries for 1860 were 924 American and 613 foreign; in 1869 the figures were 365 American and 1,391 foreign. In all history it would be difficult to find an instance where any nation has experienced, in so short a time, commercial changes of the magnitude indicated, and yet continued to exist with any degree of national strength and prosperity. Take another illustration. Since 1860 the business of man- ufacturing boots and shoes for g~eneral use has been almost completely revolutionized. Instead of being the result of the labor of men working upon a bench in small shops or apart- ments, with awl, lapstone, and hammer, it is now carried on in immense factories, with such perfection and adaptation of ma- chinery, that a pair of boots or shoes can be made in less time than it requires a visitor to inspect at leisure the processes; while the increased power of production with a given amount of manual labor has been at least twenty-five per cent. The writer visited one of these large establishments in Massachu- setts during the past year, and, after having seen the industry of the United States and of Europe under circumstances perhaps more favorable than have ever before been granted to any one individual, he must confess to having never experienced a greater interest than in witnessing the ingenuity, rapidity, and economy of the working there exhibited. When the leather is first received, instead of being hammered to compact it, it is rolled; instead of the several pieces which compose the boot or shoe being cut and trimmed by hand, they are cut to a pat- tern by dies, or punches. If the work is to be pegged, a single machine makes the pegs, punches the holes, drives the pegs, automatically adjusts the shoe to the progress of the work, and stops of its own accord when the pegging is complete. if the work is to be sewed, a machine performs it so rapidly that the 128 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, eye cannot follow the formation of the separate stitches. In like manner, by machinery, are the heels adjusted, fastened, and trimmed, the uppers blacked, and the soles smoothed and pol- ished; one man, in this last department, doing with greater ease what formerly would have required the labor of twenty men. After a careful inspection of all these new processes, the writer went to the counting-room and said to the proprietor, I have witnessed the marvellous perfection, skill, and economy of your manufacture; please look at your books and tell me how the present cost of a case of hoots or shoes, reckoned in gold, ~om- pares with the cost of the same in 1860. There is no neces- sity, was the reply, for me to look at my books. I know that it is at least thirty per cent greater now than it was in 1860. Or, in other words, something has come in since 1860 which has not only completely neutralized the whole benefit of this marvellous invention and adaptation of machinery, but has added thirty per cent to the cost of one of the most indispen- sable articles of domestic consumption. A few days later, in the city of New York, the writer fell in with one of our most experienced engineers and machinists, who had recently visited England for the special purpose of investigating the cost and conditions of iron ship-building. He stated that, since 1863 64, the wages of the workmen employed in this business in Great Britain had advanced about fifteen per cent, but that, notwithstanding this, owing to the use and improvement of new machinery and the better application of knowledge, the cost of construction had materially decreased; or, in other words, taking the two industries alluded to as the basis of comparison, the result of the last ten years in the United States has been to decrease the purchasing power of wages, increase the cost of the manufactured product, diminish consumption, and prevent exports; while in Great Britain the result has been an in- crease ,of wages, a decreased cost of the finished product, an increase of consumption, and a very large augmentation of exports. The writer also obtained another illustration to the same effect from Mr. Mundella, the well-known hosiery manufacturer of Nottingham, England, and a member of Parliament, who, it will be remembered, visited this country during the autumn of 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 129 1870. This gentleman ascertained, as one result of inspecting the manufacture of hosiery at Lawrence and Philadelphia, that the difference in favor of Europe in the cost of the paper boxes or cartoons for a dozen of circular or machine-made stockings was more than the average profit on the dozen of such stockings in Nottingham or Germany, although, through the application of machinery and labor-saving processes in the United States, we can turn out a better and more symmetrical box in much less time than the same can be produced elsewhere. And, as per- tinent to the same subject, it may also be stated that, when Mr. Mundella was in the United States, he was repeatedly waited upon by skilled workmen formerly in his employ, and expressly brought over by American corporations, with a re- quest for their old opportunities for employment, on the ground that, taking the purchasing power of wages into account, their labor was better remunerated in the old country than in the new. We will present one more picture. In the spring of 186T the writer visited a pier on the North River, in the city of New York, for the purpose of witnessing the embarkation of some friends for Europe. The steamer was the Fulton, the coin- panion of the Arago, on the old New York and llavre line, a vessel faultless in marine architecture, built some years previous to the breaking out of the war, and repaired after the war at an expense of several hundred thousand dollars. She was a noble and a favorite vessel; and the writer well remem- bers, as he saw her majestically move off, that his heart swelled with.pride at the thought that the American flag was yet borne by one first-class merchant steamer on the ocean. In March, a year ago, an errand for information took the writer to Mr. John Roach, of the Morgan Iron-Works, on the East River, and noticing a large steamer at the foundry dock, it was pro- posed to visit her. It was the same steamer Fulton in the process of demolition. Men in the cabin were stripping off the costly panelling, in the hold disconnecting the machinery; while old-junk men and small traders were bargaining and huckstering for the furniture of the state-rooms and the appur- tenances of the galleys and of the pantries. How is this? it was asked. Is the vessel worn out? Not at all, was VOL. cxiii. NO. 232. 9 130 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, the reply. A few thousand dollars would make her as good as new, but there is no use for her. I took her for a debt a short time ago. I have offered her for sale repeatedly for $25,000, and finding no purchaser, I have concluded to break her up and sell her material as the only way to save myself. Look at those anchors and chain cables, the very best origi- nally, and just as good now, but no one in New York will make me an offer for them, for there are no vessels building in the United States large enough to require them, and no one can tell when there will be. And more than that, he continued, ten years ago, within the radius of half a mile from where you now stand, there were at least 15,000 workmen directly or in- directly employed in building or repairing marine engines or other machinery of vessels and steamers. To-day, out of all the great establishments that then existed, the Allaire, the ~Etna, the Continental, the Novelty, and others, there is only one left, and that employs but about Th0 workmen on work of a miscellaneous description. Now how are such results as have been detailed to be a~- counted for? What has happened since 1860 which has driven our flag from the ocean, closed up our machine-shops, wiped out of existence great branches of industry, increased the cost of our products, diminished the purchasing power of wages, and rolled up annually a heavy balance of indebtedness against u~ and in favor of foreign nations? In general three causes or agencies may be specified, a large debt, increased taxation and expenditure, and a vicious and unsound currency. Dismissing for the present the last-named agency as some- thing which merits a separate and independent discussion, and merely remarking that it is now the nearly unanimous opinion of those who, from a practical and theoretical point of view, have given the subject the most attention, that the evil and disturbing influence of the present currency upon the industry and progress of the nation cannot well be underrated, let us examine the influence in the same direction of the recent in- creased debt, taxation, and expenditure. Our debt, as we all know, is large, but the interest-bear- ing portion of it is only about one half as large as that of 1871.] TAe Meaning of Revenue Reform. 131 Great Britain,* our great commercial rival. We have heavy taxation, but our taxation, per capita, by reason of the in- terest on the national debt, is much less than that of Great Britain, or in about the ratio of twelve to sixteen. Deduct- ing furthermore the amount appropriated for the principal of the public debt, the annual expenditures of the United States for interest and all other purposes for 186970 were less than those of Great Britain for the same purposes by at least sixty millions of dollars.j- Our climate since 1860 has not changed in character; our soil has not lost its fertility, or our crops their variety; neither have any of our natural resources been materially diminished. On the contrary, they have in some respects greatly increased, for we have twenty- five thousand more miles of railway than we had in 1860, and eight millions more of population to help us to pay the debt and taxes; and we are adding to the number of our producers and tax-payers at the rate of over one million per annum. The debt itself, then, and the taxation necessary to pay the interest upon it and provide for the government, cannot in themselves constitute a sufficient cause for the results we have specified. Neither can local taxation in general be assigned as the main reason for the increased cost of national produc- tions; for heavy as are these latter taxes, their increase has been on the exchanging and consuming population of the great cities rather than on the producing population of the towns and villages of the country, as is strikingly illustrated by the circumstance that, while the per capita taxation of the whole State of New York is the largest, with the exception of Massa- chusetts, of any State in the Union, the per capita taxation of so much of her population as lies outside of her seven or eight leading cities, and represents three fourths of the people of the State, runs down to almost as low an average as in Vermont, which is the most moderately taxed State of the Union. But, nevertheless, the question at issue is not a matter of * Debt of Great Britain, 1870, 793,000,000 ($ 3,965,000,000); interest-bear- ing debt of the United States, April 1, 1871, $1,968,000,000. t Total expenditures of the United States for 186970, exclusive of payment of the principal of the public debt, $309,653,000. See Report of the Secretary of the Treasury. Total gross expenditure of Great Britain, 1868 69, 75,497,000 ($ 377,485,000). 132 The Aleaning of Revenue Reform. [July, mystery, and there is no occasion to deceive ourselves in rela- tion to it; for apart from the currency, we can put our finger upon the exact source of our difficulties, and declare the whole secret from the beginning. It is not the debt; it is not the necessary burden of taxation incumbent upon us, but the method by which taxation is levied and collected, a method which takes far more from the people than the treasury ever receives or needs, and which blights a harvest it cannot gather. An inquiry into the origin and maintenance of this defective method will show that it in part results from the ignorance and incompetency of those to whom the business of financial legislation is intrusted, and in part from selfishness and design. The present Secretary of the Treasury does not hesi- tate openly to avow his belief that there is no such thing as a science of political economy; and, as might naturally be ex- pected from a person with such opinions, he adopts as the basis of his financial policy the principle that the prosperity of a great nation can be best promoted by the maintenance of an excessive taxation, or, what is the same thing, excessive depri- vation. Mr. John Sherman, the chairman of the Senate Committee on Finance, in a speech delivered last year in Ohio, declared that he was unable to recognize any difference between a tariff for revenue and a tariff for protection; and that, too, when he could hardly name an article in the tariff, on which duties had been levied mainly with a view to protection, in respect to which there had not been, not only a resulting loss to the treasury, but a heavy burden of indirect taxation entailed upon the people; while General Grant, in a message which the Lon- don Spectator declared to be the most idiotic of state papers, gravely assured the country that the employment of foreign vessels, carrying freight at lower rates and with greater de- spatch than American vessels could carry it, was equivalent to throwing money into the sea, as if the Yankee nation had forgotten the good old maxim of their fathers, that a penny saved was as good as a penny earned, and needed instruction to the contrary. And when we look back on the record of individual effort in the last few years of Congressional ses 1871.] The M~aning of Revenue Reform. 183 sions, there is much to remind us of that monarch of England, Charles 11., who was called merry but never wise, who con- cluded one of his speeches to Parliament by saying: And pray do not forget to contrive some good s/tort bills, which may improve the industry of the country; and so God bless your councils. In truth, the war and its necessities brought to the surface a class of men who were the beetles and the wedges by which the system of slavery and its abominations was cleft asunder, crushed, and destroyed; and as beetles and wedges they did the work that was expected of them, did it well, and are en- titled therefor to the thanks of the country. But now that the war is over and slavery become a thing of the past, these instruments are as little adapted to the reconstruction of our finances and the development of our resources as would be crow-bars and sledge-hammers for the adjustment and regula- tion of marine chronometers. But a more immediate influence in creating and maintaining the existing methods of taxation is to be found in the assump- tion, no doubt in many cases honestly accepted, but more fre-. quently maintained through pure selfishness and the greed of money-getting, that whenever a tax or rate of duty can be shown to be for the benefit of a private interest, the same must prove equally advantageous to the whole country. As Ameri- cans we believe in fostering and developing the interests and industry of our own country in preference to the interests and industry of any other country. We would go even further, and as protection is a good and, in itself, honest word, we would protect American industry. But what is American industry ? It is not the raising of cotton in Mississippi, and the spinning it into yarn or cloth in Massachusetts; it is not the digging of gold in California, the raising of grain in Iowa, the forging of iron at Pittsburg, the packing of pork in Cincinnati, the manufacture of hats at Newark, or the build- ing of ships in New York. It is not one, but all of these that constitute American industry; and when we say that we are in favor of protecting American industry, we mean that we are in favor of protecting and favoring all branches as fairly and equitably as possible, and not of protecting one interest with 134 The Aleaning of Revenue Reform. [July, one hand and, at the same time, striking down and destroying some equally meritorious interest with the other. And then, again, we would recognize the further fact, that taxation, or the taking away of ones property for other than personal purposes, is an act of deprivation, in the abstract an evil; and al- though the exercise of taxation, like the taking of medicine, is often necessary and results in great good, yet we would not, on that account, advocate either the payment of taxes or the dosing with medicine on general principles, when either could be dispensed with. But there are people who think differently, who regard tax- ation as something good in itself, and who, although always talking of protection to American industry, do not mean there- by industry in general, but always some special industry. In support of these v ws it is proposed to offer a few illus- trations, as far more convincing than any other form of argu- ment. Liebig, the world-renowned chemist, remarks in one of his works, that when we reflect upon the important relation which sulphuric acid sustains to the great industries, the bleaching, dyeing, and printing of cottons, the manufacture of glass, of soap, of paper, of phosphorus and matches, of refined oils and fertilizers, and many other articles, it is no exaggeration to say that the commercial prosperity of a country may be very accurately measured and estimated by the amount of this arti- cle consumed, and also by its comparative price or cost. Meas- ured by this standard, the situation of the United States is far from flattering, for the price of sulphuric acid is to-day more than double what it is in the commercial countries of Europe, and its per capita consumption much less than it is in either Great Britain, Belgium, or Germany. Shortly after the war, when it became a matter of great im- portance to resuscitate the industry of the South and restore our supremacy in the raising of cotton, there were discovered on the coast of South Carolina immense deposits of fossil bones, which, when treated with sulphuric acid, became converted into soluble phosphate of linie, the fertilizer above all others best adapted to the necessities of the cotton-planter. It would, of course, seem natural that these deposits, extremely bulky in 1871.] The 1Jteaning of Revenue Reform. 135 their character, should be treated at or near the place where they are found. And so, doubtless, they have been; but it was nevertheless stated in the Senate, in the debate on this subject (June 29, 1870), that it was more profitable to send the crude deposit to England, have it manufactured there and returned to our shores for sale, than to make it ourselves. And when it was proposed in the last Congress to do something to reduce and cheapen the cost of sulphuric acid, by taking off from the forty-seven millions of pounds of sulphur annually imported into the United States the duty of six dollars per ton on the crude and ten dollars on sulphur freed from its abundant bulky impur- ities, and thus allow us to avail ourselves without limit of the great natural deposits of this article on the coast of Sicily, the place to which all other nations go, where it can be obtained almost for the mere cost of collecting, Mr. Senator Morrill of Vermont, a man who, for purity of character and general intel- ligence, has few equals in the national councils, objected, on the ground that there were some people in the State of Vermont who were engaged in the comparatively small business of mak- ing sulphur from iron pyrites, and that a reduction of the duty on imported sulphur would be prejudicial to their interests; or, in other words, the interests of a little capital and a few men in Vermont were of far more importance, in the opinion of Senator Morrill, than the interest of the masses to cheapen cloth, soap, glass, paper, oil, and fertilizers, and through cheapening to increase consumption, and lead thereby to increased product and industrial development. And worse than this, Senator Sherman, chairman of the Committee on Finance, pleaded for the retention of the tax, on the ground that the government needed the revenue; as if any government, except in dire necessity, could afford to raise revenue by taxing one of the fundamental elements of its industry, and least of all ~ govern- ment which at that time and ever since has exhibited a surplus of from five to eight millions per month over and above all its expenditures. Take another illustration, as showing how what may be termed a great national branch of production has been restricted by the influence of what is falsely called protection~ to home industry. We allude to the manufacture of fur and felt hats. 136 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, This industry had established itself in this country before the Revolution, and had become so prosperous that hostile legisla- tive measures w6re especially passed by the British Parliament in regard to it. Previous to 1860 America made better and cheaper hats than could be made in any other country. She exported a seventh part of all her product. She had invented a machine of the most ingenious character, which formed and shaped the hat almost automatically. Now what is the condi- tion of this business? The exportation of hats has diminished. Nova Scotia, the West Indies, Australia, and the Cape of Good Hope, which formerly bought hats of us, now buy them elsewhere. The price at home has so far increased that our people wear proportionally fewer hats than they formerly did. The business has become unprosperous, and within the last two years the leading manufacturers and dealers have suffered im~ mense losses or become bankrupt. The reason of all this is so obvious, that no one who will take pains to examine the question can possibly miss it. The body of the hat is composed of fur or wool, separate or mixed. Not having yet been reduced so far as to feel obliged to keep rabbits for their fur, we import coney fur from Germany. If we import it on the skin, we pay ten per cent; it cut from the skin, twenty per cent. The reason of the difference is to be found in the fact that there is but one very prominent firm in the United States that cuts hatters fur. They have, it is reported, a machine that does the work with the smallest possible amount of manual labor, a machine which has never been patented, and which is guarded with the utmost secrecy, for fear of imitation or use by others either in this country or in Europe; and the parties interested, having made an immense fortune out of the business, desire that their successors may do likewise. If wool is used instead of hair, experience has shown that one kind of wool, namely, that grown at the Cape of Good Hope, is most desirable, by rea- son of its peculiar felting qualities, and on this the manufacturer pays a duty of about one hundred per cent. The inside silk lining, a speciality of silk imported from France, pays sixty per cent; the silk ribbon on the outside sixty per cent more; and the inside leather, or sweat-band, forty-five per cent; while the hat itself, if manufactured in Europe from fur and other 1871.] The lifteaning of Revenue Reform. 137 materials entirely free from all these taxes, is admitted into the United States at a duty of thirty-five per cent; and if from wool, at from twenty to fifty cents per pound, and thirty- five per cent ad valorem. Is it any wonder that, under these circumstances, the hat business does not flourish in the United States, and that our people pay more for hats than the people of any other country on the face of the globe? Take another illustration. Rylands Iron Trade Circular for March 4, 18T1, published at Birmingham, England, has the following paragraph The edge-tool trade is well sustained, and we have less of the effects of American competition. That this competition is severe, how- ever, is a fact that cannot be ignored, and it applies to many other branches than that of edge-tools. Every Canadian season affords unmistakable evidence that some additional article of English hardware is being supplanted by the produce of Northern States, and it is noto- rious how largely American wares are rivalling those of the mother country in other of our colonial possessions, as well as upon the Conti- nen Does it occur to the reader to ask, in view of this testimony of the superiority of American edge-tools, under what circum- stances foreign competition has been overcome and set at defiance? Does he knoW that the American manufacturer pays from 40 to 60 per cent more for his iron and steel than his Sheffield competitor; and in the manufacture of table and pocket cutlery, 10 per cent more for his bone for han- dles, and, until within a few months, from ten to twenty per cent more for his ivory? As an illustration, furthermore, of how our present revenue system tends to annoy and repress certain great branches of industry, instead of fostering and stimulating them, an incident of recent occurrence may be related. The continually increasing demand and consequently increasing price for ivory has long made the production of an artificial ivory a desideratum; and a patented compound in- vented in England and known as Parkesine, or Xylotile, has recently been imported in considerable quantities for the purpose of being used for knife-handles in place of ivory, in the manufacture of table cutlery. The secret of the composition of this ivory substitute is substantially as follows. Gun-cotton, 138 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, which is ordinary cotton converted by treatment with nitric acid into an explosive substance, is dissolved in naphtha, and con- verted into a clear but very adhesive liquid termed collodion. The collodion thus formed is mixed with zinc-white, ivory-dust, and various coloring materials, and through kneading, baking, and pressure there results a hard lustrous substance, resem- bling marble or bone, and capable of being sawed or worked as readily as either of the above-mentioned substances. When first imported it was passed as an unenumerated material, at 10 or 20 per cent duty; but after its use had become some- what extensive, the duty was raised to 85 per cent, on the ground that it was a manufacture of cotton, a decision about as sensible as it would be to impose the same tariff on bread- stuffs, crackers, or maccaroni as upon ice, for the reason that water is an essential constituent of all ordinary breadstuffs, and under some circumstances assumes the form of ice. And this decision, on appeal, was affirmed by the Treasury IDepart- ment to be correct. J have been a protectionist all my life, said a leading manufacturer of cutlery to the writer, but after such a decision as that by the Treasury Department, and with a continuance of the present enormous duties on all the steel we use, I find myself very fast departing from the ways of the fathers. Now it would not seem to require any great amount of kpowl- edge to perceive that the way to extend the manufacture and sale of edge-tools in the United States, to concentrate, in fact, the major part of the business of the world in this indus- try in this country, would be to reduce the duties on steel and iron, and thereby put the American manufacturer, as regards the cost of his raw material, somewhat more on a par with his foreign competitor. But to such a proposition a compara- tively few men engaged in making steel at Pittsburg and elsewhere, notwithstanding they have enjoyed for the last ten years a most enormous protection, vehemently shout no; and although there are one hundred men employed in the United States in manufacturing steel into knives, axes, tools, and machinery of every description, where there is one engaged in making steel, yet thus far the voices of the few have prevailed against the voices of the many, and the American people 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 139 continue to pay more for their steel and their tools and their machinery than any other nation on the fac~ of the earth, civilized or uncivilized. And it does not recijuire any extensive acquaintance with the principles of political and social economy to perceive that the nation which increases the cost of its tools and its machinery, increases thereby the cost of all that the tools and the machinery make, and thus imposes the very heaviest and most destructive burden upon its industry and progress that it is possible for the mind of man to devise and initiate. But the instances of iniquitous tariff enactment, resulting in loss to the treasury and increased burdens upon the people, for which ignorance or diversity of views in respect to economic principles cannot be pleaded as excuse, are much more worthy of attention. Take first, for example, the article of quinine, the stan& ard remedy for fever and ague and general debility, a free supply of which is almost a necessary condition of existence in some portions of our country. Quinine is an extract from Peruvian bark, which grows only in South America, and is prepared mainly through the use of alcohol, which dissolves the alkaloid and leaves the other impurities. Before the war Peruvian bark was admitted free, and quinine paid a low duty of 15, per cent; but the war necessitated revenue, and a duty was imposed on bark of 20 per cent. To compensate the manufacturers for this advance, an internal-revenue tax, and the increased cost of alcohol, although it was afterwards shown that the alcohol used wa.s not wasted to any great extent, but redistilled and used over and over again, the duty on quinine was increased to 45 per cent. But in 1867 the internal-revenue tax was taken off, and in 1869 the price of alcohol, through the reduction of the tax on distilled spirits, was reduced more than one half ; but still the manufacturers held on to the protection of 45 per cent. By the act of July, 1870, the duty on bark of 20 per cent was removed and the import made free; but the Hon. William B. Kelley, that eminent friend of American industry, who managed this matter for the benefit of the two principal quinine manufac- turers in the country, who live in Philadelphia, took good 140 TAe Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, care that the duty of 45 per cent on quinine should remain undisturbed. What has been the result? Previous to the breaking out of the Franco-German war, quinine could have been imported from Europe free of duty for $ 1.65 per ounce. The American price then ruled uniformly at $ 2.25 per ounce, giving its American manufacturers an advantage of about 60 cents per ounce, or, at the rate of $240,000 per annum, on an estimated annual consumption of at least 400,000 ounces over and above any foreign import. When, however, the Prussians, in their siege operations about Paris, burnt the quinine factory of Pele- tier, the largest in Europe, the American manufacturers, not content with their already ample profit and advantage, im- mediately advanced the p1-ice of quinine, and it is now quoted stiff at $2.40 per ounce; which on a consumption of 500,000 ounces, the duty being now practically prohibitive, would give an additional annual advantage or profit of $ 75,000. It is true that the price of bark is somewhat higher at present than it was a year ago, but there has been no increase of cost to warrant any such difference of price as exists between the European and American product. Take another case. Some ten or fifteen years ago a New England mechanic invented a wonderfully ingenious machine for making wood-screws. As is generally the case, the invent.. or does not seem to have made much profit by the invention, but the company into whose hands it passed did, and for years they have, according to current report, paid dividends on watered stock of from 100 to 150 per cent per annum. But in order successfully to use this machine, which made screws cheaper and better than screws were ever made before, and which did away with the labor of hundreds and thousands of operatives formerly employed in the manufacture, it was neces- sary to protect American industry, and a duty of 11 cents a pound, or about 125 per cent on the cost of similar screws in Europe, was accordingly imposed and is yet maintained; and for the year 1870 the treasury received from the duties on im- ported screws, commonly known as wood-screws as the law expresses it, less than eighteen thousand dollars, while the American people paid more for their screws than was neces 1871.] The Aileaning of Revenue Reform. 141 sary by at least a million of dollars.* And Mr. Sherman, chairman of the Senate Committee on Finance, senator from Ohio, says he can see no difference between a tariff for revenue and a tariff for protection. Formerly the tops or uppers of ladies and childrens shoes were made exclusively of morocco or kid-skin; but it was dis- covered that certain peculiar fabrics of cloth, called lasting and serge, made of long hairy wool of the kind that is grown in warm latitudes, were much better adapted for the manufacture of this variety of shoes than leather. The idea became im- mensely popular in the United States; and the shoes thus made, being lighter, cheaper, more elastic, and equally durable, were universally adopted. Being, moreover, particularly adapted to warm climates, a very large export trade in these shoes sprung up between the United States, South America, and the West Indies. But, iii an evil day, a few men in Massachusetts con- ceived the idea that they could make a little money out of the business of manufacturing lasting and serge, and in order to help them Congress put on a duty sufficient to raise the price of all the lasting and serge used in the country to the extent of over a million of dollars, and thereby increased to the same extent the price of all the womens and childrens shoes into which lasting and serge enter as constituents; or, in other words, in order to protect American industry, the government is made a de facto partner in one or two factories in Massachu- setts, runs them at an expense to the people of from a million to a million and a half of dollars per annum, or about the amount required to defray the expenses of the whole foreign intercourse of the country, and taxes to an equivalent amount the shoes of the women and children of the country. Now, where is the protection to American industry in this proceed- ing? Is it not reversing the cardinal doctrine of every free democratic state, that legislation should always be for the greatest good of the greatest number, and making the good of the many subordinate to the interests of a few? * The value returned to the internal-revenue office of the screws manufactured by one coinpiny in Nev England was $2,210,000, out of a product for the entire country of $ 2,260,000. As these screws are sold in the United States at more than double the price of similar screws in England, the advantage to the American man- ufacturer i3 easily calculated. 142 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, But there is an incident connected with this tax that deserves to be handed down to history. Bastiat, in one of his works, gives a petition from the manufacturers of candles, gas, oil, lamps, etc., requesting the legislature to direct the shutting up of all doors and windows, in order that the light of the sun may not penetrate to the interior of shops and houses to the prejudice of the several manufactures above indicated. No one, of course, in reading this petition would at first imagine that it is anything more than an extravagant burlesque; or, if he recollects that in olden time, when it was first proposed to use mineral coal in England, the leather manufacturers peti- tioned Parliament against it, on the ground that if coal was used there would be fewer trees grown and felled, and, there- fore, a smaller supply of bark for tanning, he nevertheless con- gratulates himself that things are looked at nowadays more sensibly. But it was reserved to our day and generation to have Bastiats petition rewritten in earnest, and the views of the English tanners in respect to the use of coal again offered as a bonafide basis of legislation. When, in 18Th, the special commissioner of the revenue, by reason of the views above expressed, recommended to Congress the removal of the duties imposed upon the importation of lasting and serge, the Morocco Manufacturers Association addressed by their secretary the fol- lowing letter to Hon. W. D. Kelley, which letter Mr. Kelley had the imprudence to publish To the HON. WM. D. KELLEY, M. C. Dear Sir: I enclose you herewith a remonstrance signed by the morocco manufactureis of Philadelphia and Wilmington against the removal of the duty on serge goods, as recommended by Commissioner Wells. It is only necessary for me to call your attention to the fact thaL serges are now selling at $1.20 per yard, that six and three quar- ters feet of morocco is considered equal to one yard of serge, and that the morocco, which would be used to compete with it, we cannot a/ford to sell for less than 26 cents per foot, so that, with the present duty, $ 1.20 of serge will go as far as $ 1.75 of morocco. The Morocco Manufacturers Exchange have read your review of Commissioner Wellss report with the greatest pleasure, and, in con- nection with the noble stand taken by you in favor of protection to American industry, have considered that it was but necessary to lay this matter before you to secure your interest and prevent the consum 1871.] The .Thfeaning of Revenue Reform. 143 Ination of this great outrage upon one of the largest branches of Amer- ican industry. Hoping our confidence in your zeal and influence may not be over- estimated, I am, Truly yours, EDw. S. DEEMER, Secretary of the Morocco Manuftecturers Exchange of Philadelphia and Wilmington. PHILADELPHIA, January 20, 1870. Now we ask the special attention of our readers to the striking fact admitted in the above letter, namely, that $ 1.20 of serge will go as far in making shoes as $1.75 of morocco, and, al- though the shoe manufacturers and the women and children of the country prefer serge to morocco, as making a more graceful, healthy, light, and, withal, much cheaper shoe, Con- gress is called upon to intervene and make the country use what it does not want, at an expense of $ 1.75 for what $1.20 would do better; in other words, the sunlight is to be shut out, that lamps and candles may find a better market, and the people be made to pay for what is entirely useless. We have space but for a single additional illustration. Pre- vious to January 1, 1871, marble was admitted at a duty of from 50 to 70 per cent; and for certain purposes manufac- turers consider Italian marble indispensable. The importation, which is large, is generally in the form of huge blocks, which are sawed and cut in this country to any shape or pattern that may be desired. But the manufacturers of the West found that it was a matter of great expense and difficulty to move large blocks of foreign marble inland, and so, until within the last few months, they have been in the habit of importing their marble in slabs, which could then be transported inland by way of the Mississippi and other Western rivers at small ex- pense; and a very considerable business in the way of importing and reworking certain descriptions of foreign marble had sprung up in the West and Southwest, particularly at Louisville and St. Louis. But this independence Eastern manufacturers were not disposed to tolerate, and accordingly measures were taken during the year 1870 to put an end to it, by raising the duties, not on marble in huge, unwieldy blocks, such as could 144 The Areaning of Revenue Reform. [July, be easily brought into New York and Philadelphia, but upon marble in smaller blocks and slabs. Meetings of those inter- ested were accordingly held, and testimony can be adduced showing that statements were openly made that the thing was going to be done, and that any reasonable amount of money would be raised to help effect the increase of duties, if it should be found necessary. The duties were accordingly raised, and made for all practical purposes absolutely prohib- itive, and by the following ingenious phraseology which none but an expert can interpret: On all sawed, dressed, or polished marble, marble slabs, thirty per cent ad vatorem, and in dddition twenty-floe cents per superficial square foot, not exceeding two inches in thickness; if more than two inches in thickness, ten cents per foot in addition to the above rate for each inch or fractional part thereof in excess of two inches in thickness, Provided that, q exceeding six inches in thickness, such marble shall be subject to the duty now imposed upon marble blocks. The result of the passage of this act was that seventy-five men were at once thrown out of employment at Louisville, and an equal number at St. Louis, the whole current of the Southwestern trade interrupted, and large investments of cap- ital rendered useless. And now, as a companion picture, we ask our readers atten- tion to a few extracts from the annual report of the Rutland Marble Company of Vermont, presented October 31, iSOT; office Exchange Place, New York, Edward Wolfe, president; first premising that the capital stock of the company is one million of dollars, the amount paid in being considerably less, reported as not in excess of $ 300,000. The report says : The quality of our marble is unsurpassed; our statuary is ac- knowledged to be the finest in the world. The supply is inexhaustible, and a production of 300,000 cubic feet per annum would only deepen the openings less than ten feet yearly Owing, however, to the cx- orbitatit rates of freight charged by the Rutland and Saratoga Railroad Company, on blocks to Troy, it is almost impossible to compete with Italiart marble in the block trade for the lower grades. While the demand for sawed marble is as great as ever, that for blocks has flullen off materially. 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 143 The affairs of the company, before the increase of the tariff, were, however, reasonably prosperous, for the report con- cludes: The financial condition of the company is most satisfactory, and shows a net result for the year of over 14 per cent in cash; besides an increase in the stock of marble on hand of over $50,000, or 5 per cent on the capital. With the completion of the mill, all expenditures for permanent improvements will cease, and the stockholders will begin to reap the benefits by increased dividends. We forbcar to comment further on the subject of marble! But similar statements could be made in respect to salt, grind- stones, carpets, hair-pins, rolled copper, telegraph-wires, hair- cloth, sugar of lead, bichromate of potash, castor-oil, eyelets, and hundreds of other articles, in all of which legislation has been studiously arranged to benefit selfish and private inter- ests, to the great detriment alike both of the treasury and the people. But taxes thus indirectly levied upon the community, and obscured under the phraseology of so much per square yard or so much ad valorem, are no less taxes than when imposed directly and openly. And we hold that it is these very indirect taxes which have been heaped upon us during the last ten years, and are maintained under the specious pretence that they favor American industry, which to-day constitute, in con- nection with the currency, the great obstacles in the way of progress and development; which have enhanced prices, affected the natural distribution of wealth, disturbed labor, and rendered business unprofitable. And we hold, further, that if the covering of our financial legislation could be once stripped off as the anatomist takes off the outer integuments of an or- ganic body, and the nerves, the chords, and the fibres of influ- ence disclosed, and the whole seen to be stretched and worked for private advantage and personal emolument rather than for public good, we hold that if the people could once see this, their vengeance on the politicians, the parties, and the men who do and countenance these things wonld be terrible. Suppos3 the Hon. W. B. Kelley, instead of arranging mat- ters to advance the interests of a few of his constituents by reducing the duty on bark but leaving the duty on quinine~ VOL. CXIII. NO. 232. 10 146 Vie Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, had manfully proposed a bill appropriating $150,000 outright for this purpose from the treasury, is it to be supposed that any such bill would meet with favor? Have our readers any idea how such a bill would read? If not, we furnish a draft for their information: Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in Con- gress assembled, That, in order to establish justice, provide for the general welfare, protect Americaii industry, and promote the manufacture of quinine, the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized to pay to A B and C D, of Philadelphia, out of any moneys hot otherwise appro- priated, the sum of $120,000 annually, and in consideration therefor the said A B and C D covenant and agree that they will not charge the American people for quinine a price in excess of thirty ccnts per ounce over and above the price at which the same can be bought in all other commercial countries. In addition to the burden of taxation indirectly imposed,a burden so great that no more satisfactory evidence of the wealth and resources of the country can be presented than the simple fact that it has sustained these taxes for ten years and yet lives and prospers, let us consider for a moment the obstruc- tion to development and the taxation consequent upon car- rying out the two favorite financial schemes of the present administration; namely, the attempt to reduce the premium on gold without at the same time doing anything to decrease in other respects the cost of production, and the attempt to reduce the national debt by the maintenance of excessive taxation. The President and the Secretary of the Treasury, in their last annual messages, congratulated the country that by their efforts the premium on gold had, within the past year, been reduced seventeen per cent. But seventeen per cent reduction of the premium on gold has meant seventeen per cent reduc- tion in the currency price of the entire cotton crop of the coun- try, and seventeen per cent in the value, at least, of all that part of the wheat, the pork, and petroleum and other products of the country available for exportation; and for the loss thus occasioned aggregating not less than one hundred millions there cannot have been any sufficient compensation, for, with the present volume of currency remaining unchanged, we have not been brought any nearer the resumption of specie payments, 1871.] like Meaning of Revenue Reform. 147 and any reduction which may have taken place during the past year in the cost of production has been mainly due to an excess of labor and product consequent upon the limitation and restric- tion of the domestic markets, or to the exercise of greater skill and economy on the part of producers, and would have un- doubtedly taken place all the same, even though the premium upon gold had been allowed to remain unchanged. Again, the action of the Secretary of the Treasury in hurry- ing the payment of the principal of the national debt, the thing for which the administration claims more of credit than for any other one act, so far from actually relieving the country at the present time from debt, merely amounts to transferring the obligation, and rendering it far more burdensome. Thus, from what source has the $200,000,000 by which the principal of the debt has been reduced during the last two years been obtained? Unquestionably from taxation. Now let us follow the incidence and the influence of a dollar of tariff taxation, imposed, not for the purpose of paying interest and defraying expenditures, but for the sole object of reducing the debt. As such the dollar constitutes as much an element in the original cost of an imported article as do the freights, the interest, and the commissions; and being paid in gold in the first instance becomes at once and in all subsequent transactions a dollar and ten cents, at least, in currency. On this the importer expects to make a profit of ten per cent, thus augmenting the incidence of the dollar tax in the first stage to $1.21. A like profit on the part of the jobber further increases it to $1.34, while the profit of the retailer, if reckoned at twenty per cent, brings up the incidence of the tax of the dollar in the first instance to about $ 1.60 to the consumer, who ultimately and especially in this in- stance pays the tax; thus demonstrating that the payment of the $200,000,000 which the administration, during the last two years, has made upon the national debt, has been effected at a cost to the people of not less than $320,000,000, to say noth- ing of other taxes which the imposition of one tax under the tariff always indirectly creates and occasions. Now,ifit can be demonstrated that the imposition of the dollax tax in the first instance is necessary, and the proper time and place to take it is at the present moment and through the tariff, we 148 The ATexning of Revenue Reform. [July, have nothing to say. But if the tax is not needed, if the time and the place are not opportune, and if the development of the country and the consequent elasticity of the revenues constitute in themselves a sufficient provision for the debt in the future, then we say, that the taking from the people at this time $160,000,000 per annum by taxation to pay $ 100,000,000 of the debt is, something which is not to be spoken of to our credit, but rather to our shame. It would seem, therefore, that the questions involved in the defects of our financial policy and methods of taxation, as above indicated, are not questions which require that the advocates of reform should necessarily commit themselves either to the prin- ciples of free trade on the one hand, or of protection on the other; inasmuch as they concern simply the reform of abuses. And it is, moreover, the maintenance of these abuses which give to very many industries a claim for protection which other- wise would not be demanded. Governor Thomas of Mary- land, in a speech before the Committee of Ways and Means a year ago, which was never published, set this matter in its true light. He is reported to have said: I live in Alleghany County, Maryland, where our staple product is coal, and we have found by calculation that we are taxed every year to the extent of nearly two millions of dollars through th& increased price which we are obliged to pay for all that we consume in working this coal and transporting it to mar- ket, for our iron, our lumber, our woollens, our oil, and our machinery; and we only ask, as a matter of justice, that a suffi- cient duty be imposed upon coal to compensate us for our taxes. All of which, rendered into simple English, amounts to this: You have allowed A, B, and C to plunder us annually to the extent of two millions; now allow us in return to plunder somebody else in the way of compensation. There is still another way of demonstrating how abuse in this matter of fiscal legislation feeds upon and nourishes abuse, or how the injudicious and unwarranted imposition of taxes under the tariff of itself creates a necessity for compensat- ing or protective duties. Take a business, for example, like that of manufacturing woollens, where the capital may be sup- posed to be turned two or three times per annum, or where the 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 149 annual value of the product is two or three times greater than the capital employed. Now if the American product is en- hanced over and above the cost of a similar article produced in England to the extent of two or three per cent, as experts, indeed, allege, by reason of the tariff imposed on the impor- tation of the few manufacturing elements of teazles, dyestuffs, and olive oil, is it not clear that an advantage is thereby guar- anteed to the foreigner over the American of from six to nine per cent per annum on his manufacturing capital; or, in other words, with the cloth or yarn selling at the same price in a given market, the present fiscal legislation of the United States insures to the foreigner a dividend of from six to nine per cent per annum on his capital employed in woollen manu- facturing, and imposes a corresponding disadvantage on his American competitor; thus compelling the latter to stand on the defensive in his own markets, and depriving him of the possibility of selling a single yard of cloth in competition in any foreign market. And under such circumstances, is it not also clear, that to deny the American woollen manufacturer compensating protection would be not only gross injustice, but also equivalent to saying that the woollen business shall not be carried on in the Unite4 States? The present wrong, there- fore, consists, not in giving to the American woollen manufac- turer a protective duty on the import of foreign woollens in compensation for the disadvantages to which he has been sub- jected by impolitic fiscal legislation, but in making such protec- tion necessary by taxing, in the first instance, the elements of a great leading industry, and thereby necessarily and uselessly increasing the cost of the domestic manufacture, and ulti- mately throwing a heavy burden of taxation, through increased cost, upon the consumers, who are in this instance mainly the masses. In short, the work of the hour is to reform these abuses. Until this has been done, the country is in no condition to dis- cuss whether it will adopt free trade or protection as a policy; and we would even go further and assert, that when these abuses under the tariff have been done away with, it will be found that fully one half of the necessity which may now exist for protection will be obviated, and that when the currency is 150 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, reformed the other half has departed also, and that the nation, of its own accord, will quit the position which it now occupies in respect to its industry of standing on the defensive, and, going back to the position it occupied in 1859 60, will boldly assume the offensive and bid defiance to every foreign com- petitor in every variety of production for which Providence has afforded us equal natural advantages. It is the desire and the endeavor to accomplish such ends that to-day constitute the essence of revenue reform; and it is in the faith that such ends can be accomplished, and a greater measure of prosperity and a greater abundance than have ever yet been obtained can be secured to the country, that the advo- cates of revenue reform present their cause to the people and demand of them encouragement and support. And in view of the evidence presented, and of the ends and objects proposed, how contemptible becomes the sneer that revenue reform seems to be something which is to supply every mans wants without any cost or effort on his part. On the other hand, the present fiscal policy of the govern- ment, which has been foisted upon the country and is defended by its advocates on the grounds that it fosters and promotes the extension and diversity of American industry, so far from effecting any such result, in reality has powerfully contributed to the arrest of industrial growth and development, and to the diversion of labor from those employments in which skill and intelligence, rather than brute force, are the essential and requisite elements. Startling as is this assertion, the evidence which can be adduced in its support is of such a character as practically to reach demonstration. Thus, as has been already stated, the returned currency value of our exports for the calendar year 1870 amounted in the aggregate to $506,000,000; but of this large sum $442,000,000 stands to the credit of cotton, breadstuffs, tobacco, provisions, petroleum, hops, naval stores, oil-cake, and bullion, the latter being taken at its specie value. If we add to this amount $ 13,285,000 for the export value of wood and manufactures of wood (the latter mainly in the form of sawed and unelaborated material), $10,400,000 for firearms, cannon, and munitions of war (a wholly exceptional export of the year), $2,481,000 for tallow, 1871.] The Meaning of Revenue Reform. 151 $ 1,416,000 for coal, $ 1,783,000 for furs and fur-skins, and $920,000 for living animals, we shall have left the compara~ tively small sum of $ 34,000,000 to represent the exported surplus of all the mechanical and skilled industries of the country, the manufacture of metals, of textiles, of glass and earthenware, books, paper, drugs, chemicals, fancy articles and Yankee notions, leather, hats, india-rubber, ships, agricultural implements and machinery of all kinds, marble and stone, soap, candles, salt, seeds, sugar and confectionery, distilled spirits, wearing apparel, carriages, railroad equipments, and the like, a sum absolutely less than is at present paid out by the three leading railway corporations of the country for their annual equipment and running expenses. It would seem to be almost in the nature of a self-evident proposition, that if we dam up or obstruct by legislation, by war, or any other cause the export outlet for the surplus product of the so-called manu- facturing industries of the country, as we have been most assiduously and successfully engaged in doing for the last ten years, that we thereby necessarily limit the growth and ex- tension of those same industries to the increased consumption consequent upon the increase of the population of the country, now at the rate of about one million per annum. But in every progressive civilized country, especially in a country like the United States, where brain and fingers are unusually active, the powers of production, through the continued in- vention and application of labor-saving machinery and pro- cesses, always increase in a far greater ratio than population; the machine or process, for example, which saves the work of twenty men, and thereby adds that number of laborers to the force engaged in other branches of production, requiring very probably for its support not more of industrial product than would have been adequate to the necessities of a single one of the men whose occupation it has supplanted. The consequence of this is that production continually gains upon consumption; and if the surplus thus occasioned is not allowed to flow out of the country through the chann~ls of export, it inevitably rolls back upon the domestic markets, depressing prices to a point where trade and commerce can resume their natural and normal channels ; or paralyzes industry until constimption again becomes equal to or in excess of production; both of 152 The Meaning of Revenue Reform. [July, which results the manufacturer instinctively resists by what seem to him the only practical methods available, namely, re- duction of wages or suspending production. And herein is to be found the explanation of the strikes, combinations, and dis- sensions which have prevailed during the last few years among the laboring classes of the country, and also for the continued depressions and fluctuations in business during the same period, a condition of things which will most assuredly last and repeat itself until we have a complete change in our fiscal policy, and a selection of men for administration whose claim to office is based on some other qualification than that of having been an adroit politician or a successful fighter. In view of these conclusions, how significant the statement that the value of the manufactured cotton exported during the last year from the United States was not equal to the value of the oil-cake exported, or the residuary product of the manufac- ture of linseed oil; and how full of meaning the following extract from the recent official report of Mr. J. N. Lamed on the state of trade between the United States and the British Possessions of North America. Concluding a review of our commercial relations with Canada, he says The range of the Canadian market for American productions ap- pears to be lamentably limited and almost confined to the rawest pro- ducts of agriculture, with hardly an appreciable opening for the benefit of our skilled labor in any department; and this, too, in the case of the nearest neighbors that we have upon the globe. That such results cannot in any degree be referred to any necessity of taxation entailed upon us by the war, is fully proved by the fact that the interest on the entire debt for the fiscal year 1869 T ~O was far more than provided for by the revenue derived from the taxes imposed upon distilled spirits, fermented liquors, tobacco, stamps, banks, and bankers; not one of which taxes necessarily fall upon labor, or iii any de- gree increases the cost of the so-called manufacturing produc- tion; and if a similar financial result has not been attained to for the last fiscal year, it is to be accounted for mainly by the fact, that the Executive of the United States has been pleased to appoint, as commissioner and superintendent of the internal revenue, a man whose chief and almost sole qualification was that he had been a good cavalry officer. 1871.] TAe Meaning of Revenue Reform. 153 The spirit of political conservatism, to which the retention of unreasonable laws is commonly due, has many recommen- dations, especially in a popular form of government. It is natural and right enough that an administration charged with the responsibilities of office should lean towards an established policy, and should see good even in ancient abuses. No one can blame a public officer for feeling some jealousy at outside interference with his duties, or for ignoring small knots of men without political strength, who attempt to force upon a government the first crude ideas of political change which happen to catch a momentary breath of popular applause. But even in America, where, if anywhere, conservatism is strongly needed, it may be carried too far for the public good. An administration which avows its intention not to investigate abuses, not to relieve injustice or regard remonstrance, has already become too conservative for its own safety. Yet this is the nature of administrations, and we do not wish to imply that there is anything extraordinary in the attitude assumed by the present Executive. Undoubtedly there have been Pres- idents as little inclined to reform as President Grant, and it is probable that there may have been finance ministers less competent than the present Secretary of the Treasury. But if it is the nature of administrations to resist at first even the most necessary reforms, it is no less the nature of intelligent citizens to insist upon them, and to indicate in the clearest possible language that, where common sense and political strength are con~bined, there even the slowest administration must act. We have attempted to show that common sense is on the side of the revenue reformers; and although the ques- tion of political strength does not come within the scope of this essay, the public can hardly remain much longer in doubt where it lies. In the face of this situation it remains for the government to decide whether it will continue its devotion to established abuses, and renew its sneers at reform, or whether it will vigorously apply such intelligence as it has at its com- mand, and recognize the fact that revenue reform means its own salvation by a timely reversal of its present financial policy. DAVID A. WELLS. 154 The Exploration of Palestine. [July, ART. V. 1. Palestine Exploration Fund. Vol. I. London: Published at the Societys Office, 9 Pall Mall East. 2. The Recovery of Jerusalem: A lVarrative of Exploration and Discovery in the City and the Holy Land. By Capt. WILSON, R. E., Capt. WARREN, R. E., etc. With an intro- duction by ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D. D., Dean of West- minster. Edited by WALTER MoRRISoN, M. P., Honorary Treasurer to the Palestine Exploration Fund. London: Richard Bentley. New York: B. Appleton & Co. 3. Ordnance Surveq of the Peninsula of Sinai: made with the sanction of the Right Honorable Sir JOHN PAKINGTON, Bart., Secretary of State for War. By Capts. C. W. WILSON and II. P. PALMER, R. E., under the Direction of Col. Sir HENRY JAMES, R.. E., F. R. S., Director-General of the Ordnance Survey. Published by authority of the Lords Commission- ers of her Majestys Treasury. AN additional word or two from the Evangelists or from Josephus would have determined the topography of Jerusalem with such accuracy that no serious controversy could ever have arisen concerning the sacred places. If Luke, for instance had not rested with saying, when they were come to the place which is called Calvary, but had added, which was on such a side of the city, upon such a hill, at such a distance from such a gate, the site of the crucifixion and of the sep- ulchre, which, according to John, was in a garden, in the place where Jesus was crucified, could hardly have come into dispute. But the Evangelists wrote for contemporaries, to whom the localities to which they referred were as familiar as are the Common, the State House, and Bunker Hill to Bosto- nians; and they were too intent upon the moral bearings of the great transactions they were recording to think of the per- plexities of future arch~ologists. Though the description of the site of Jerusalem by Josephus was written for strangers, and intended to convey a minutely accurate picture of its principal features, there is a provoking want of definiteness upon some important points in the topography of the city. This descrip- tion has been the armory from which the combatants upon this

154 The Exploration of Palestine. [July, ART. V. 1. Palestine Exploration Fund. Vol. I. London: Published at the Societys Office, 9 Pall Mall East. 2. The Recovery of Jerusalem: A lVarrative of Exploration and Discovery in the City and the Holy Land. By Capt. WILSON, R. E., Capt. WARREN, R. E., etc. With an intro- duction by ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D. D., Dean of West- minster. Edited by WALTER MoRRISoN, M. P., Honorary Treasurer to the Palestine Exploration Fund. London: Richard Bentley. New York: B. Appleton & Co. 3. Ordnance Surveq of the Peninsula of Sinai: made with the sanction of the Right Honorable Sir JOHN PAKINGTON, Bart., Secretary of State for War. By Capts. C. W. WILSON and II. P. PALMER, R. E., under the Direction of Col. Sir HENRY JAMES, R.. E., F. R. S., Director-General of the Ordnance Survey. Published by authority of the Lords Commission- ers of her Majestys Treasury. AN additional word or two from the Evangelists or from Josephus would have determined the topography of Jerusalem with such accuracy that no serious controversy could ever have arisen concerning the sacred places. If Luke, for instance had not rested with saying, when they were come to the place which is called Calvary, but had added, which was on such a side of the city, upon such a hill, at such a distance from such a gate, the site of the crucifixion and of the sep- ulchre, which, according to John, was in a garden, in the place where Jesus was crucified, could hardly have come into dispute. But the Evangelists wrote for contemporaries, to whom the localities to which they referred were as familiar as are the Common, the State House, and Bunker Hill to Bosto- nians; and they were too intent upon the moral bearings of the great transactions they were recording to think of the per- plexities of future arch~ologists. Though the description of the site of Jerusalem by Josephus was written for strangers, and intended to convey a minutely accurate picture of its principal features, there is a provoking want of definiteness upon some important points in the topography of the city. This descrip- tion has been the armory from which the combatants upon this 1871.] The Exploration of Palestine. 155 battle-field of arch~ology, as Isaac Taylor has styled it, have drawn their principal weapons for every side of the con- troversy; and no intelligent discussion of the sacred localities of Jerusalem can be had, which does not dispose satisfactorily of the main points in the topography of the Jewish historian. According to Josephus, The city was built upon two hills, one part facing the other (dvTL7rpdacoffo~, face to face), separated by aa intervening valley, at which oae upoa another (i. e. crowded together) the houses ended. Of these hills, that on whicli the upper city stood was much the higher and straighter in its length. Accordingly, on account of its strength, it was called the fortress of King David, the father of Solomon, by whom the Temple was originally, built, but by us it is called the upper market-place. The other hill, called Akra, which sustains the loWer city, was curved on each side (dp4ilKuprot, gibbous). Over against this was a third hill, naturally lower than Akra, and for- merly separated from it by another broad ravine. Afterwards,~ however, when the Asmoneans were in power, desiring to connect the city with the Temple, they filled in this ravine, and, cutting down the summit of Akin, they reduced its elevation, so that the Temple might appear above it. The valley called Tyropmon, which we have said separated the hill of the upper city from that of the lower, extends as far as Siloam, for so we call a fouataia whose waters are both sweet and abundant. From without (i. e. exterior to the city), the two hills of the city were encompassed by deep ravines, and because of the precipices on both sides there was nowhere any approach. * Detailed as this description is, it should be remarked that the names Zion and lllioriah do not occur in it; and if it be assumed that Zion was the city of David, the site of the royal fortress, and Moriah the site of the Temple, there is nothing here to determine whether Akra lay north of Zion and west of Moriah, or east of Zion and north of Moriah; and either dis- position of these three hills would meet the conditions of Jo- sephus. The data here furnished are: (1.) A fortified hill, upon which stood the tower and palace of David; (2.) A lower hill, called Akra, convex in shape, close up against the first, and separated from it by a ravine known as the Tyro- pocon, which terminated near the fountain of Siloam; (3.) A third hill opposite to Akra, and eventually joined to it by arti * Joseph. Bell. Jud. ~V. 4, 1. 156 The Exploration of Palestine. [July, ficial levelling, upon which the Temple stood ; (4.) Deep ravines encompassing the two hills, i. e. the hills of David and Akra, which were respectively the upper and the lower city. In an- other passage Josephus gives a clew to the position of these two hills relative to the Temple and to the points of the compass. Describing the gates on the different sides of the Temple enclosure, he says: In the western parts of the enclosure stood four gates: one leading over to the royal palace, the valley between being intercepted to form a passage; two leading to the suburb; and the remaining one into the other city, being distinguished by many steps down into the valley, and from this up again upon the ascent: for the city lay over against the Temple in the manner of a theatre, being encompassed by a deep valley on all its southern quarter. * This statement adds to the foregoing data the following items: (5.) The palace, and hence the upper city of David which was grouped about it, lay across a valley west of the Temple; (6.) The lower city, or Akra, was also west of the Temple, a double flight of steps forming the connection between them through the valley; (7.) Hence the whole city lay upon the western side opposite to the Temple, like an amphitheatre, of which the westward wall of the Temple enclosure was the chord. This would seem to dispose of the theory of Mr. Fer- gusson, that Akra was situated on the northern side of the Temple on the same hill, and probably on the same spot, origi- nally occupied by David as the stronghold of Zion; and con- sequently that the great northern depression running towards the Damascus gate is the Tyropocon valley. t On the contrary, Josephus leaves little room to doubt that the city of David, the primitive Jerusalem, afterwards known as the upper city, an- swered to the modern Zion; that north of this lay Akra, separated by a valley which began near the present Jaffa gate, and, bending southward, ended at Siloain; and that the Temple was opposite to these two hills, somewhere upon the area of the Jiaram. But here arises a difficulty from the language of Josephus concerning the Asmoneans. They filled in the broad ravine between Akra and the Temple; yet there remains to this * Ant. XV. ii, 5. t Smiths Dictionary of the Bible, art. Jerusalem. 1871.] The Exploration of Palestine. 15T day a marked valley running from near the Damascus gate down to Siloam. It is not easy, however, to reconcile this fill- ing up of the valley with what Josephus elsewhere says of the descent by many steps into this same valley between Akra and the Temple. Perhaps he meant that the valley had beem relatively raised; or that the northeastern ridge of Akra had been levelled, and the valley filled in at that point. This view would harmonize with the fact of a depression from the Damascus gate southward between Akra and the Temple. It is particularly to be noted that Josephus does not call this valley the Tyropceon, but rather implies the contrary. First, he describes the city as built upon two hills, separated by an m- tervening valley which he does not here name; next, he de- scribes a third hill separated from Akra by another broad ravine; then he adds that the Asmoneans filled in tI~is ravine; and now recurring to the valley which separates the hill of the upper city from that of the lower, he names this the Tyropceon, in direct contrast with the valley which separated Akra from the Temple. If then the Damascus valley represents the Tyro- pceon, Akra must be transferred to the eastern side, on the same ridge with the Temple hill, where Mr. Fergusson places it; but what, then, would become of the statement of Josephus, that a gate in the western wall of the Temple conducted to Akra? With the determination of the physical features of ancient Jerusalem the location of the sacred places is closely connected. For many centuries tradition had accepted the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as identifying the two sites of the crucifixion and the burial of Christ; but the publication, in 1841, of Dr. Robinsons Biblical Researches brought to bear against this tradition a weight of topographical and historical evidence which seriously impaired its force, and is likely in the end to overthrow it altogether. Jesus was crucified without the gate of the city. The second wall, for the third, having been built some years after the crucifixion, cannot enter into the argu- ment, the second wall, as described by Josephus, began at the gate Gennath, near the tower of Hippicus, and ran in a circle or curve over the hill on which the lower city was built. If the Tyropceon began at the Jaffa gate, and Akra was the hill 158 The Exploration of Pate8tine. [July, directly north, then a wall circling from ilippicus, for strategic reasons, for the accommodation of population, and to include the pool of Hezekiah, must have run outside the Church of the Sepulchre; and that site, being within the wall, could not have been the scene of the crucifixion. Mr. Fergusson, in accordance with his peculiar, theory of the hills, transfers the sacred places to the eastern side of the Tyropocon, and regards the building now known to Christians as the Mosque of Omar, but by Mos- lems c4lled the Dome of the Rock, as the identical church which Constantine erected over the rock which contained the tomb of Christ. Such was the condition of these problems when, in 186465, Captain Wilson, iR. E., entered upon an Ordnance survey of Jerusalem, to be followed by the laborious excava- tions of Captain Warren, ZR. E., within the city from 1867 to 1870. The state of the question is clearly and accurately presented in the Introduction to Vol. I. of the Palestine Ex- planation Fund The tongue of land on which Jerusalem is built is split in the midst into two ridges, by a ravine running from north to south from the Damascus gate to a point in the Kedron valley somewhat north of its junction with the valley of Hinnom. This depression has generally been identified in its whole course and indisputably as to the lower portion which runs under the west wall of the Haram, and thence to the Kedron with the Tyropceon valley of Josephus. Of the two ridges on which the city stands, the western is the most elevated and most important. Most authorities are agreed in placing on some portion of this ridge the original city of Jebus, captured by King David, and the upper city of Josephus. All again are agreed in fixing Ophel on the end of the tongue of land on which stands the Haram es- Shereef, and in making the site of the temples of Solomon, Zerubbabel, and Herod, and of the castle of Antonia, either coincide with or occupy some portion of the Haram itself. But here all agreement may be said to stop. There are differ- ences of opinion whether we should fix the Mount Zion of the Bible and the Mount Zion of the writers of Christian times on the same or on opposite hills, whether the name is to be identified with the eastera or the western ridge. The exact position of the Temple is matter of controversy; the site of th~ Akra of Josephus, and the Akra of the Book of Maccabees, of Bezetha the fourth quarter and last added suburb of the city; the position of the towers Hippicus, Phasnelus, and 1871.] T1~e Exploration of Palestine. 159 Mariamne, and of the tower Psephinus,which, if determined, would go far to settle the disputed question of the course of the second and third walls of Josephus; the exact extent of the city in the time of our Saviour ; are matters of keen dispute, which can only be settled by patient and systematic burrowing into the dJbris produced by many successive demolitions of the city, at those points where the absence of inhabited houses renders it possible to excavate at all. And upon the decision eventually arrived at on these points depends the settlement of what is the most difficult, as it must be by far the most interesting problem to us all, namely, whether the present Church of the Holy Sepulchre does or does not cover the true sepulchre of our Saviour; if not, whether the true site can yet be recovered, and if so, in what quarter we should look for it. Suffice it to say, that Mr. Williams and his followers regard the present site of the Holy Sepulchre as genuine; Mr. Fergusson con- siders the octagonal-domed building in the middle of the Haram, known as the Kubbet es-Sacra, to be the church of the Anastasis, built by Con- stantine, over what he believed to be the site of the Sepulchre; while Dr. Robinson, agreeing with Mr. Fergusson in discrediting the present traditionary site, is not prepared to point out a substitute. Again, the Temple of 1-lerod is identified by Monsieur de YogU6 with the whole of the present Haram enclosure, the castle of Antonia being placed to the north, where the modern Turkish barracks stand; Mr. Williams places the Temple around the Kubbet es-Sacra, which he considers to be the site of the high altar, regarding the southern portion of the en- closure as of later date. Mr. Fergusson places the Temple on a square of six hundred feet, of which the southern and western sides respectively would be formed by a length of wall extending for six hundred feet east and north of the present southwest angle of the Haram, and Antonia im- mediately to the north of it. Amidst all these conflicting theories on these and other points, systematic inquiry into facts by competent and independent parties is urgently needed, and such are the agents and such the work of the Palestine Exploration Fund. The Palestine Exploration Fund grew out of an attempt to relieve the sanitary condition of Jerusalem by improving the water supply of the city. As a preliminary to this an accurate plan of the city was required, and the expense of an ordnance survey was provided by the generosity of Miss Burdett Coutts. Captain Wilson did his work thoroughly, and we are indebted to him for the most complete and accurate maps and plans of Jerusalem yet published. Captain Wilson was so fortunate as 160 The Exploration of Palestine. [July, to confirm Dr. Robinsons discovery of the arch of the ancient bridge from the Temple to the Xystus on Zion; and Captain Warren describes in detail and with graphic illustrations the recovery of the pier and fallen voussoirs of this arch upon an ancient pavement lying under forty feet of d(bris; and also the discovery of another more ancient arch at a farther depth of more than twenty feet. Near the southwest corner of the area of the mosque may be seen several large stones jutting out from the western wall, as if forced from their original position by some violent convulsion. Upon careful examination, Dr. Robinson satisfied himself that these stones are really a skew- back; their external surface is hewn to a regular curve; and being fitted one upon another, they form the commence- ment or foot of an immense arch, which once sprung out from this western wall in a direction towards Mount Zion, across the valley of the Tyropceon. * By sinking a series of shafts, Cap- tain Warren came upon a pier 51 feet 6 inches long and 12 feet 2 inches thick, exactly opposite the remains of this arch of Robinson, giving a span of a trifle over 41 feet 6 inches; and on a pavement which stretches from the base of the pier to the sanctuary wall were found the fallen voussoirs and d~bris of the arch. This pavement was found to be laid over an im- mense mass of rubbish; and on digging through this to a depth of 23 feet, Captain Warren found two fallen voussoirs of an arch jammed in over a great rock-cut canal. The bottom of this canal is 74 feet below the springing of Robinsons arch, and 107 feet below the level of the old roadway. Captain Warrens theory is that, in the course of the many sieges of Jerusalem, the bridge which anciently crossed the Tyropceon at this point fell, breaking in part of the arch of the aqueduct beneath it, the two voussoirs found in the bottom of the canal being remains of this original bridge; that the valley was choked up with d~bris to the depth of more than 20 feet; when the Temple was reconstructed by Herod, a pavement was laid on this mass of rubbish, and the pier and arch of Robin- son s arch and viaduct were built; in time this arch also fell, and its remains are now found upon the pavement; d~bris again filled up the valley, and the pier of the arch, sticking out, * Bib. Researches, I. 2S7. 1871.] TI~e Exploration of Palestine. 161 was removed for building purposes, all except the three lower courses, which are still standing. Thus the critical sagacity of our illustrious countryman, Dr. IRobinson, is confirmed by most substantial proofs; and the arch which he was the first to connect with the viaduct of Josephus confirms his view of the course of the western wall of the Temple, and the relatioA of the Temple itself to Zion. The accumulation of debris within the city, in the valley of the Tyropceon, enormous as this is proved to be, is far exceeded by that in the Kedron, without the walls. At the northeast angle of the Sanctuary d~6ris was pierced by shafts to the depth of 125 feet below the present surface; and the valley so near its head, as found by these excavations, is over 165 feet below the Sakhra,* or Dome of the Rock; lower down, its depth is 280 feet, i the true bed of the Kedron being 38~ feet below the present false bed. This shows that Josephus hardly exaggerated the height of the Temple in saying that, if from the roof of the middle portico one attempted to look down into the gulf below, his eyes became dark and dizzy be- fore they could penetrate the immense depth. t In driving a gallery into the sanctuary wall upon its eastern side, at a depth of 53 feet below the outer surface, Captain Warren came upon several ancient courses of stone which ap- parently had never been disturbed since the original founda- tion of the Temple walls was laid, and which bore traces of supposed quarry-marks in red paint, which may have been laid on by Hirams workmen. This, however, is matter of conjecture. Both Captain Wilson, and Captain Warren after him, ex- plored the series of rock-hewn cisterns with which the rock~ of the Sanctuary is honeycombed, and in which the water brought by an aqueduct from Solomons Pools, near Bethlehem, was stored. These cisterns appear to have been connected by a system of channels cut out of the rock; so that when one was full the surplus water ran into the next, and so on till the final overflow was carried off by a channel into the Kedron. One of the cisterns, that known as the Great Sea, would contain * Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 187 Eng. ed., p. 146 Am. ed. t Joseph. Antiq. XV. 11, 5. VOL. cxln.No. 232. 11 162 The Exploration of Palestine. [July, two million gallons; and the total number of gallons which could be stored probably exceeded ten millions. * Dr. R6b- inson, by personal exploration, established the existence of a subterranean canal from the Virgins fountain to Siloam, and the intermittent flow of water at the fountain of the Virgin; and he conjectured that there was also a connection between the fountain of the Virgin and an artificial fountain under the ilaram (of which he knew only by report); but neither Cap- tain Wilson nor Captain Warren, in their search after the an- cient channels of water supply, came upon any such connection. The ignorance and jealousy of the Moslem authorities frustrated the benevolent plan of Miss Coutts for reopening the high aqueduct of Gihon, and thus restoring the fulness of the an- cient supply. A careful examination of the Triple Gate seems to disprove its pretensions to being a portion of the exterior wall of the Temple. The recovery of Robinsons arch; the discovery of Wilsons arch; some approximation to the date of the walls of the Temple by the discovery of the supposed Phoenician characters marked in red paint on their surface; some more exact de- terminations in the course of the Sanctuary walls as bearing upon the site and extent of the Temple area; the measure- inent, by a series of shafts, of the depth of d6bris, revealing the ancient levels of the Tyropoeon and the Kedron, and the amaz- ing height of the Temple above the bed of the latter; and the discovery of subterranean remains attesting the architectural grandeur of the ancient city ; these make up the sum of the results of the explorations at Jerusalem. Contrasted with the presuming title of the volume, The Recovery of Jerusalem, these results, in their actual worth to the archtoology and topography of the city, will create in many readers a feeling of disappointment. Nothing positive is added to our knowledge of the course of the ancient walls of the city. The only contri- bution toward the site of the Holy Sepulchre is in this brief and cautious paragraph by Captain Wilson The solution of this difficult question depends on the course of the second wall which surrounded the city; if it ran to the east of the church, there is no reason why the present tradition should not be cor * Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 17. 1871.] The Exploration of Palestine. L63 rect (?); if it ran to the west, the tradition must be wrong.* Up to the present time no one has seen any portion of this wall; the point from which it started, and that at which it ended, are alike unknown. It was, however, ascertained, during the progress of the survey, that the old arch near the south end of the bazaars, called the Gate Gennath, was a comparatively recent building, and that the ruins near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which had been pointed out as fragments of the second wall, were really portions of a church. t So far as this goes it tends rather to favor Dr. Robinsons view. Captain Warren advances a theory concerning Zion which greatly increases the confusion in which the topography of the ancient city is involved. He regards the Zion of David as identical with the Akra of Josephus; and places the upper city of Josephus on the hill lying south of the road leading from the Jaffa gate to the Bab es-Silsile, and including the Armenian and Jewish quarters, and probably also part of the hill to the south, outside the present walls. f Hence Akra or Zion, the lower city, lay to the north, about et-Takiyeh, or the palace of Helena; and the Tyropoeon valley began near the present Jaffa gate, and divided, not Zion from Akra, but the upper city from Akra, which was also the Zion of David and of the historical books. Captain Warren has sketched this the- ory in a plan of Jerusalem at the time of King JlJerod ; but though we have studied this plan with care, and have supple- mented it with sketches of our own, we have not been able to harmonize his theory of Zion with the statements of Josephus. This same plan traces the area of Herods Temple as occupy- ing the whole southern portion of the present Sanctuary, or a square of nine hundred feet. I only put this forward, however, writes Captain Warren, as an idea, for I am very unwilling to attempt to elaborate any plan of this position of the Temple, until I see how the general idea is received by * This branch of the alternative is obviously true; but Dr. Robinson has given reasons ~vhi~h invalidate the tradition itself apart from the question of the course of the wall. t Page 10. ~ S~e Captain Warrens paper on The Comparative Roliuess of Mounts Zion and Moriali, in Vol. I. of the Palestine Exploraticn Fund, p. 76. Eng. ed. p. 303; Am. ed. p. 236. 164 The Exploration of Palestine. [July, the learned public; for perhaps now that all the details of our work are accessible in one volume, some other views and arguments may be started which will capsize the theory I have at last formed; and I must acknowledge that I only put forward a theory which appears to me to be less open to objection than any other, and I should be very willing to see a more perfect solution of the question. * The same tone of modesty characterizes Captain Warrens summing up of the bearings of his explorations upon the topography of the Holy City I have given the few opinions I possess for the information of those who have not yet been convinced either way; and I may conscien- tiously say that I have carried on the work entirely without any strong bias towards any particular theory, for my opinions have changed whenever our researches, throwing new light upon the several ques- tions, have shown that I was in error, and I have not hesitated to say so in my letters. t Though the results of the explorations at Jerusalem are dis- appointing to those who had looked for a solution of the main questions in debate, they are by no means discouraging to the patrons of the Fund. They show that the theory upon which the Fund has conducted its operations is sound, to wit, that the Jerusalem of the time of Christ lies buried under the rubbish of centuries, the removal of which or even the pene- tration of it by shafts at points judiciously selected would uncover enough of ancient walls, arches, bridges, steps, pave- ments, aqueducts, to restore the plan of the city as described by Josephus, and to determine the location of the sacred places. For such a recovery of Jerusalem, however, there will be required not only money, patience, and skill, but the support of a strong and liberal government. Much praise is due to Captain Warren for the perseverance with which he overcame the material, religious, and political obstacles to his undertak- ing. These excavations were carried on at the constant risk of life and limb to the bold explorers. The whole series of their progress was a succession of lucky escapes. Huge stones were day after day ready to fall, and sometimes did fall, on their heads. One of the explorers was injured so severely that he could barely crawl out into the open air; * Eng. ed. p. 303; Am. ed. p. 236. t Eng. ed. p. 326; Am. ed. P. 256. 1871.] The Exploration of Palestine. 165 another extricated himself with difficulty, torn and bleeding; while another was actually buried under the ruins. Sometimes they were almost suffocated by the stifling heat; at other times they were plunged for hours up to their necks in the freezing waters of some subterranean torrent; sometimes blocked up by a falling mass, without light or es- cape. And these labors had to be carried on, not with the assistance of those on the spot, but in spite of the absurd obstacles thrown in the way of work by that singular union of craft, ignorance, and stupidity which can only be found in Orientals. * Captain Warrens narrative resembles the debris with which he became so familiar in Jerusalem; and after the utmost pains in boring through it, we have sometimes failed to get at his meaning. The reports are most carelessly edited. Con- siderable reductions, we are informed, were made in his original paper, care being taken to preserve all that relates to the actual work, while his conclusions are given in full. But there is no well-connected digest of his journals and re- ports, and one must often hunt through many pages to find some supplementary or explanatory fact. The book has the appearance of being hastily put together for the holiday season, as an advertisement of the Fund; but the English edition is admirably printed, and the numerous illustrations are executed with a mechanical skill which sometimes gives a startling reality to the narrative. The American edition falls far below the English in mechanical execution, but is afforded at a much cheaper rate. Both are alike wanting in maps that are indis- pensable for the quick apprehension of many references in the text. There should be a revised edition under careful super- intendence. Though the efforts of the Palestine Exploration Fund have been expended chiefly upon excavations in Jerusalem, various parties acting under its auspices or co-operating in its plans have made Palestine at large and the adjacent deserts the field of their explorations. The results of these expeditions, some of which were conducted scientifically, are given in Part II. of The Recovery of Jerusalem, under the following titles: Sea of Galilee, by Captain Wilson, R. E.; The Archi- tectural Remains of Palestine, by R. Phen6 Spiers, Esq.; the * Dean Stanleys Introduction to The Recovery of Jet~isa1eva. 166 The Exploration of Palestine. [July, Hauran, by the Count de Vogii6; The Survey of Palestine, by Lieutenant Anderson, R. E.; On the Pottery and Glass found in the Excavations, by the Rev. Greville J. Chester; Moabite Stone; Sinai, by the Rev. F. W. Holland. The points of interest in Captain Wilsons paper are the identification of the fountain at Tabigah with the fountain of Capernauin, and the identification of Khersa on the left bank of Wady Semakh, with the Gergesa of the demoniacs and the swine. Describing the fertility of Gennesareth, Josephus says: It is also watered by a most fertilizing fountain, which the people of the region call Kapharnaum. This some have thought to be a vein of the Nile; because it produces fish similar to the Uoracinus of the lake near Alexandria. * There are in the plain of Gennesareth two large fountains, Ain-et-Tin, on the shore near the head of the plain ; and Am Mudawarah, or the Round Fountain, a mile and a half back from the lake, near the southwestern corner of the plain. There are no ruins of consequence near the latter; but near Ain-et-Tin are the ruins of Khan Minyeh, which Robinson regards as the site of Capernaum. He argues that the city was near the fountain, but admits that Ain-et-Tin, though it occasions a luxuriant verdure in its vicinity, does not irrigate the plain. North of Khan Minych, a cliff that bounds the plain of Gennes- areth in that direction, is the charming little bay of Et Tabigah, and a great spring, by far the largest in Galilee, estimated to be more than half the size of the celebrated source of the Jordan at Banias. The remains of a reservoir and an aqueduct show that the waters of this fountain were once raised to a higher level, carried for some distance along the side of the hill, and then conducted round the Khan Minyeh cliff, by an excavation in the solid rock, to a point whence they could be distributed over the plain of Gennesareth for the purpose of irrigation. Many travellers, Robinson among them, had noticed this excavated channel in the cliff; but Captain Wilson appears to have been the first to trace its connection with the fountain at Tabigah, and to identify that with the fountain of Capernaum. About a mile and a half northward from this fountain, upon the shore of the lake, are the extensive ruins of Tel Hum, * Joseph. B. J., III. 10, 5. 1871.] The Exploration of Palestine. 167 which cover a wide area, and include the remains of a large synagogue, evidently of high antiquity. Captain Wilson favors the view of Dr. Wilson, Ritter, and others, that these ruins mark the site of Capernaum; yet he adds with modesty: It is very desirable that extensive excavations should be made both at Khan Minyeh and Tel Hum, as, until this is done, it is impossible to say with certainty which is Capernaum. Captain Wilson is so fair in recognizing the services of other explorers, that it must have been an oversight which omitted to credit to Dr. Thomson the identification of Khersa, on the left bank of Wady Semakh, as the Gergesa of the pos- sessed herd of swine. Dr. Thomson f sets forth very con- clusive reasons for this identification, and then argues against the traditional site at Utn Keis, that there the swine must have raced across a level plain several miles before they could reach the nearest margin of the lake. Captain Wilson re- iterates Dr. Thomsons arguments in favor of Kkersa, and then protests against the extraordinary blunder of placing the scene of the miracle at Gadara, now Urn Keis, a place from which the swine would have had a hard gallop of two hours before reaching the lake. j This is probably an instance of unconscious appropriation of the ideas and almost the language of another. Captain Wilson gives a description of the Sea of Galilee, which sets it before one as in a mirror: The lake is pear-shaped, the broad end being towards the north; the greatest width is six and three quarter miles, from Mejdel, Magdala, to Khersa, Gergesa, about one third of the way down, and the ex- treme length is twelve and a quarter miles. The Jordan enters at the north, a swift, muddy stream, coloring the lake a good mile from its mouth, and passes out pure and bright at the south. On the north- western shore of the lake is a plain, two and a half miles long and one mile broad, called by the l3edouin El Ghuweir, but better known by its familiar Bible name of Gennesareth; and on the northeast, near Jordans mouth, is a swampy plain, El Batihah, now much frequented by wild boar, formerly the scene of a skirmish between the Jews and Romans, in which Josephus met ~ith an accident that necessitat * Page 357; p. 301 Am. ed. t Land and Book, II. 35. ~ Page 369 Eng. ed.; p. 287 Am. ed. 168 The Exploration of Palestine. [July; ed his removal to Capernaum. On the west there is a recess in the hills, containing the town of Tiberias; and on the east, at the mouths of Wadys Semakh and Fik, are small tracts of level ground. On the south the fine open valley of the Jordan stretches away towards the Dead Sea, and is covered in the neighborhood of the lake with luxuri- ant grass. The hills, except at Khan Minyeh, where there is a small cliff, are recessed from the shore of the lake, or rise gradually from it; they are of no great elevation, and their outline, especially on the eastern side, is not broken by any prominent peak; but everywhere from the south- ern end the snow-capped peak of Hermon is visible, standing out so sharp and clear in the bright sky that it appears almost within reach; and, towards the north, the western ridge is cut through by a wild gorge, the Valley of Doves, over which rise the twin peaks or Horns of Hat- tin. The shore line, for the most part regular, is broken on the north into a series of little bays of exquisite beauty; nowhere more beauti- ful than at Gennesareth, where the beaches, pearly white with myriads of minute shells, are on one side washed by the limpid waters of the lake, and on the other shut in by a fringe of oleanders, rich in May with their blossoms red and bright. * Captain Wilson gives a graphic description of the suddenness and violence with which storms burst over the Sea of Galilee, fully corroborating the account of the Evangelists, how there came down a storm of wind on the lake, and the waves beat into the ship so that it was full. The monograph by Lieutenant Anderson on the Survey of Palestine is a paper of much scientific value. His IReconnois- sance Survey extended only from Banias, the northern limit of Palestine, along the line of the Jordan valley, by the western highlands, to Jerusalem. The instruments employed were an eight-inch sextant, an artificial horizon, a small theodolite for measuring angles, two measuring-chains, a pocket prismatic compass, four pocket chronometers or watches, one mercurial and one aneroid barometer. The results of this survey are given upon the map of the Ordnance department, chiefly in the more accurate determination of many points of historical interest. Yet, in the words of Lieutenant Anderson, The amount of work accomplished, compared with what remains to be done, is as the seam of a coat to the whole garment. The vast system Recovery of Jerusalem, pp. 338, 339; Am. ed. 263, 264. 1871.] The EzploratiQn of Palestine. 169 of valleys east and west of the line we have followed has still to be ex- amined. There is not a hill-top on the ridges between them that does not contain the ruins of some ancient city; and the work that has beea commenced should not cease till the topography of the whole of Pales- tine has been carefully worked out The success which has hitherto crowned the efforts of Dr. Robinson and other explorers ia identifying the old sites is sufficient to insure still further discoveries following upon more extended examination. The land is now under- going changes; the people are dying out or emigrating; the old habits and customs are disappearing; and no time should he lost in completing the work before the levelling hand of civilization shall have effaced the relics of the past. * Thus far the papers which make up the volume entitled The Recovery of Jerusalem have exhibited the modesty of true science and an appreciative regard for the labors of others, especially of our distinguished countryman, Dr. Robin- son. Quite in contrast with these, in both respects, is the concluding paper on Explorations in the Peninsula of Sinai, by Rev. F. W. Holland. It opens in this vein At last the obscurity which has so long hung over the peninsula of Sinai, with regard to the possible determination of the route of the Israelites through the desert, has been removed We have had gathered up by professional men, the well-known accuracy of whose work places their reports and maps beyond suspicion, all the materials that the desert affords for setting at rest the important topographical questions which have been at issue Mr. Hollands own contribution to this result is stated in these words It was my privilege to form one of the exploring party; having been requested, in consequence of my knowledge of the country and personal acquaintance with the Arabs gained during three previous visits in 1861, 186~, and 1867, to accompany the expedition in the capacity of guide. In other words, the professional men of the expedition said to this Hobab, Leave us not, we pray thee; forasmuch as thou knowest how we are to encamp in the wilderness, and thou mayest be to us instead of eyes. What Mr. Holland professes to have accomplished in the peninsula of Sinai is * Page 471; Am. ed. p. 366. 170 The Exploration of Palestine. [July, summed up in somewhat exulting language by Dean Stan- ley: The spot of the passage of the Red Sea; the course of the Israelites by the Wady Useit and the Wady Tayibch; the identification of the Wilderness of Sin with the plain of El Murkhah; the identification of Rephidim with Feiran, and of the sacred hill of Aaron and Hur with the eminence crowned by the ruins of Paran ; the identification of the Ras Sufs~feh and the plaiu of RThah with the scene of the giving of the Law and the Israelite encampment; the probable change in the resources of the wilderness; the comparatively modern date of the Sinaitic inscriptions. Now every one of these points, with the exception of the very doubtful identification of Re- phidim with Feiran, was established by Dr. Robinson in his journal of 1838; and the suggestion of Ras Sufs~feh as the Sinai of the Exodus was original with him. One would suppose that Mr. Holland had never heard of Robinson, for he does not once mention his name, though he follows very closely his line of argument; but that Dean Stanley should have given Mr. Holland the credit of establishing points long ago settled by Robinson can be accounted for only by the intimation with which he opens his Preface, that of late years the pressure of other occupations has rendered him less familiar with a field in which he was once acknowledged as a master. Though Mr. Holland has added nothing to our knowledge of the peninsula of Sinai, the splendid photographs of the Ord- nance Survey have spread before the eye of the student the most impressive localities and the most valuable details of the whole region; and the map, when completed, will doubtless approximate a satisfactory determination of all important points. It is a serious defect in The Recovery of Jerusalem that the volume was published without the maps so necessary to the understanding of the text, and which are constantly referred to in the narrative. While candor compels us to speak disparagingly of Mr. Hollands ambitious essay, we cannot too highly praise Mr. E. H. Palmers report upon the Desert of the Tih and the country of Moab. To a conversational knowledge of the Arabic, and a practical acquaintance with the peculiarities of the several tribes of the Sinaitic peninsula, and the region of Moab, Mr. 1871.] The Exploration of Palestine. 171 Palmer unites sagacity, self-control, patience, perseverance, practical science, good powers of observation, a knowledge of history and of physical geography, and a fund of good-nature and good health, admirable qualities all for a desert explorer. He was accompanied by Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake, a gentle- man who possesses a thorough knowledge of natural history, and has been for years engaged in Eastern travel. These two congenial travellers, equipped with a single tent, supplies for three months, and surveying and photographic instruments, their whole outfit carried upon four camels, journeyed on foot, in a zigzag course, a distance of 600 miles in the Wilderness of the Wanderings, making accurate notes of every feature, and visiting every point to which tradition, rumor, or conjec- ture had attached anything of arch~ological or Biblical interest. Their journey in this descrt consumed seventy days, and forty- five days more were expended in exploring Moab. The fine Route Map of the Negeb and the Tih prefixed to their report, with their daily stations marked, shows how thoroughly their work was done. Among the more important results of the ex- plorations are the following: No fossils were found in the coun- try, nor any inscriptions, except the Arab tribe marks. In the heart of the peninsula, north of the line of et-Tih, is an ex- tensive mountain plateau called Magr~ih, which is intersected by several broad wadies. To the west of this plateau, and forming the eastern border of the desert of et-Tih, are a num- ber of lower mountain groups, amidst which the wadies which take their rise in the heart of Jebel Magr6~h meander on their way to the sea. This country. is much more fertile than the open plain. Throughout this region are evidences of ancient cultivation and of a degree of fertility capable of sustaining a large population. Dams and reservoirs for husbanding water, wells now choked with sand and d~bris, sowing-fields, pits for storing wheat, and threshing-floors, terraces along the hill- sides, and innumerable heaps known by the Arabs as grape mounds, these, together with frequent traces of settlements, sometimes of large towns, show that the desert was once the settled abode of a numerous people. Even now there are scenes of enchantment in the midst of the arid waste. The Wady Birein, a broad valley taking its rise in Jebel MagrTh, was filled 172 The Exploraiion of Palestine. [July, with verdure; grass, asphodel, and oshej grew in great pro- fusion; flowers sprang beneath our feet; immense herds of cattle were going to and fro between us and the wells, and large flocks of well-fed sheep and goats were pasturing upon the neighboring hills. Large numbers of donkeys and some horses were also feeding there. This state of things may solve the question touching the support of the cattle of the Israelites during their sojourn in this Wilderness. Mr. Palmer is inclined to bring the ancient line of cultiva- tion in Palestine much farther to the south; placing the fron- tier of the Negeb or South country at Am Gadis, which he identifies with Kadesh, in latitude 300 30 N., a whole degree south of ilebron. EshkQl he would place in that immediate vicinity; and it is a curious fact that among the most strik- ing characteristics of the Negeb are miles of hillsides and valleys covered with the small stone-heaps in regular swaths, along which the grapes were trained, and which still retain the name of teleil4t-el-anab, or grape-mound. The Zephath of the Exodus is probably identified in Esbait~, where are the remains of a fort or tower, and of three churches, among the ruins of a once extensive town. In some of the ruins of this desert, Mr. Palmer fancies that he has found traces of an Israelitish camp, or of some primeval structure. His narrative, in itself full of vivacity, makes the Exodus live once more amid the realities of history. In Moab he was less fortunate. The discovery of the famous stone, and the lavish expenditure of De Saulcy and other travellers, had made the Arabs i~iore jealous and rapacious than ever. His belief is that above ground, at least, there does not exist another Moabitish stone, but that many treasures lie buried among the ruins of Moab. Indeed, the whole region east of the Jordan Moab, Edom, Ammon, Bashan remains to be explored in the light of modern science. Particularly in- viting is the ancient territory of Bashan, now better known under the name of the Hauran. Count de Vogii6, who has furnished to the volume on Jerusalem a brief paper upon this district, says truly, that there is not one more interesting or less known than the ilauran. Its riches, both natural and archa~ological, its retired position, and the manners of its inhab 1871.] The Exploration of Palestine. 173 itants, all combine to render it, above all other places, worthy of exciting the curiosity of the traveller. Thoroughly to explore the Hauran, the traveller should first make favor with the Druses; go there under their protection, as the guest of affiliated tribes, and, adopting the manners of the country, should reside long enough to discover all the treasures known to his jealous hosts. The American Com- mittee for the Exploration of Palestine, acting in harmony with the English Palestine Exploration Fund, have resolved to make this region the special field of their labors in the ensuing autumn. They propose to send out a thorough linguist and a competent naturalist, who shall first domicile themselves among the Druses, and then explore the ilauran as they shall be passed along, under the inviolable khou6, the symbol of friendship, from tribe to tribe of the Bedouin. In their circular the Committee say: This district contains a greater number of unexplored sites and of extensive ruins than any other district of equal extent in the world. Many inscriptions are also known to exist throughout the country, which have not been copied, and which may yet prove to be of the highest interest to the historical and Biblical student. The discovery of the Moabitish inscription illustrating incidents mentioned in the Second Book of Kings, renders it highly probable that there still exist similar records of ancient times and races. For the exploration of this territory the Committee have matured a plan which can be accomplished at a moderate expense, and which promises important results. The alternative of this plan would be an expedition in force, equipped and protected by the government. This enterprise appeals equally to men of all beliefs, and to scholars in every department of knowledge; and Americans should feel a just pride in maintaining for their country that honorable precedence in Syrian exploration which has been won by Robinson, Smith, Lynch, Thomson, and Barclay. Jos. P. THOMPSON. 1T4 Mullers Translation of tAe Rig- 1~eda. [July, ART. VI. CRITICAL NOTICES. 1. Rig- Veda-Sanhita. The Sacred Hymns of the Brabmans trans- lated and explained by F. MAX MPLLER. Vol. I. Hymns to the Alaruts or the Storm-gods. London: Triibner & Co. 8vo. pp. clii, 263. 1869. EVERY one, nowadays, who knows anything about ancient litera- tures and ancient creeds, knows the exceptionni interest belonging to the Hindu Veda, both as a literary and as a religious monument. Al- most every one, too, knows the difficulty of entering this great mine of primeval thought and belief, from ~vhich, it is true, many tt-easures of golden ore have been brought to day, but which has never been thrown fully open to the explorer. With its exploration the name of Professor MUller has for long yenrs been closely and conspicuously connected; and now that we have from his band the beginning of a translation, and a fully annotated translation, or traduction raisonn~e, as he styles it, of the Veda, it cannot be otherwise than important to see in ~vhnt spii~~ he has undertaken the work, and with what success. This is the more necessary, inasmuch as probably no one has opened the volume ~vithout experiencing, in one respect, at least, a severe dis- appointment. MUllers translation had been announced by his publish- ers as to form eight volumes; in fact, it is still so advertised. This may have been the result of a misunderstanding, or else perhnps the estimated octamerism of the work was meant to be understood in some peculiar sense, not obvious to those who were asked to subscribe for it; but when the first of the eight appeared, and was found to contain only twelve hymns out of the more than a thousand that make up the Rig- Veda, or, in verses, just about one seventy-g9fth of the whole text, people could not help asking with what and how essential matter the other pages of the stout and costly volume were filled, for whose benefit such immense breadth of treatment had been intended, and whether it was, after all, for the common advantage, and a thing that the general public ought gladly to submit to, for the sake of the more special schol- ars to whom it might be as good as indispensable. It does not, however, take a long examination to satisfy one that the volume is not wholly innocent of padding. Thus, in the first three hymns translated (with one of the later ones), precisely one quarter of the double page, as it lies open, is occupied with MUllers version. The whole lower half is filled with the versions of his three predecessors, Wilson, Benfey, and Langlois, given for the sake of comparison.

1T4 Mullers Translation of tAe Rig- 1~eda. [July, ART. VI. CRITICAL NOTICES. 1. Rig- Veda-Sanhita. The Sacred Hymns of the Brabmans trans- lated and explained by F. MAX MPLLER. Vol. I. Hymns to the Alaruts or the Storm-gods. London: Triibner & Co. 8vo. pp. clii, 263. 1869. EVERY one, nowadays, who knows anything about ancient litera- tures and ancient creeds, knows the exceptionni interest belonging to the Hindu Veda, both as a literary and as a religious monument. Al- most every one, too, knows the difficulty of entering this great mine of primeval thought and belief, from ~vhich, it is true, many tt-easures of golden ore have been brought to day, but which has never been thrown fully open to the explorer. With its exploration the name of Professor MUller has for long yenrs been closely and conspicuously connected; and now that we have from his band the beginning of a translation, and a fully annotated translation, or traduction raisonn~e, as he styles it, of the Veda, it cannot be otherwise than important to see in ~vhnt spii~~ he has undertaken the work, and with what success. This is the more necessary, inasmuch as probably no one has opened the volume ~vithout experiencing, in one respect, at least, a severe dis- appointment. MUllers translation had been announced by his publish- ers as to form eight volumes; in fact, it is still so advertised. This may have been the result of a misunderstanding, or else perhnps the estimated octamerism of the work was meant to be understood in some peculiar sense, not obvious to those who were asked to subscribe for it; but when the first of the eight appeared, and was found to contain only twelve hymns out of the more than a thousand that make up the Rig- Veda, or, in verses, just about one seventy-g9fth of the whole text, people could not help asking with what and how essential matter the other pages of the stout and costly volume were filled, for whose benefit such immense breadth of treatment had been intended, and whether it was, after all, for the common advantage, and a thing that the general public ought gladly to submit to, for the sake of the more special schol- ars to whom it might be as good as indispensable. It does not, however, take a long examination to satisfy one that the volume is not wholly innocent of padding. Thus, in the first three hymns translated (with one of the later ones), precisely one quarter of the double page, as it lies open, is occupied with MUllers version. The whole lower half is filled with the versions of his three predecessors, Wilson, Benfey, and Langlois, given for the sake of comparison. 1871.] Mullers Translation of tAe Rig- Veda. 175 But who is to make the comparison? Not those who know nothing of the Vedic language, and cannot test each of the four by the original; they, of course, could make no intelligent choice, and would be likely to be captivated by the smoothest or most spirited rendering. Not, again, the Vedic scholar; lie has th~ other three already on his shelves; he wants to know how MUller understands a given passage, and will find for himself the materials of whatever comparison lie cares for. One of the two remaining half-pages contains the transliterated text of the hymn itself; and this is equally a superfluous addition; the student of the Veda has it in another form, and does not want it here; the public at large can only stare at it with wondering eyes. This useless trans- literated Vedic text accompanies all the translations given, and seems intended to accompany all that shall follow; and it is not even added compactly at the foot of the page, but is spaced out to fill the same room with the much more bulky English version opposite. It is a com- plete waste, and we trust that Professor MUller may be persuaded to leave it out in the remaining volumes of the series. The supererogatory matter thus described does not, it is true, count for very much in a volume made up as this is. With all its dilu- tion, the translation occupies less than an eighth part of the pages placed in our hands. More than four times as much space (or 214 pnges against 49) is given to the notes, or commentary. This corn- raentary, to the mind of its author, is so important a part of his work, that upon the strength of it he ventures to call his o~vn the first translation of the Rig-Veda. The propriety of this claim will appear as we go on; at present, we have to look at the character of the notes themselves. They are, we nre told, intended to present a full account of the reasons which justify the translator in assigning such a power to such a word, and such a meaning to such a sentence. I mean by translation a real deciphering, adds our author, a work like that - which Burnouf performed in his first attempts at a translation of the Avesta. This comparison with Burnoufs work does not seem quite in point. It is well known that the great French scholar produced two or three bulky quartos upon the Avesta, in which he accom- plished the translation and exposition of only a few paragraphs of its text. But, in the first place, he called it a commentary, not a trans- lation. And, in the second place, the circumstances of the two cases are as unlike as they can possibly be. The Zend language, when Bur- nouf took it up, was a terra incognita, and a most difficult and perplex- ing field of investigation. It partook of the nature of an inscription in an unknown language; it had to be deciphered. A mere Version there, ~vithout full exposition of the methods by which it was obtained, 176 Mullers Translation of t1~e Rig- J7eda. [July, would have been unintelligible and valueless. Burnoufs aim was to point out the way to others, to show them what they had to do if they would read the Zend and interpret the hidden meaning of the Zoroas- trian scripture. His work was therefore essentially inceptive and in- capable of completion, and it always remained a fragment. As for the Veda, it occupies with a marked difference, to be sure, of degree a like position with the Iliad, or the Psalms: its method of interpreta- tion is obvious, and the materials far from scanty; many scholars have been long engaged in its study, and have rendered parts or all of it, with more or less success, according to their opportunities and capaci- ties; they have gone through, over their own tables, with processes of research and comparison in part identical, in part analogous, with those which MUller write~ out at full length and breadth in his notes, claim- ing simply on the score of having done so the honor of being first trans- lator, an honor which we imagine that the community of Vedic schol- ars will be very slow to award him, at the expense of such men as Benfey and Wilson and Roth and Muir and Aufrecht; or even of Langlois. And they will be the slower to do so, inasmuch as he is far from redeeming his promise to account fully for every word and sentence of his translation. Such a promise, indeed, is in the nature of things incapable of being redeemed; one might write a volume about a single hymn, instead of a whole dozen, and still overlook important points, or treat them imperfectly. This being so, every translator making the pretensions that Muller makes must be held to account for the judg- ment with which he selects his points for detailed treatment, and the economy with which he expends his limited and precious space. If he tithes the mint and anise and cummin, and omits the weightier mat- ters, we shall condemn his work as so far a failure. And that this is the case with MUller is, in our opinion, incontestable. Let us take the first verse of his translation as a specimen, and test a little its quality. It reads: Those who stand around him while he moves on, harness the bright red steed; the lights in heaven shine forth. To this we have the note that The poet begins with a somewhat abrupt descrip- tion of a sunrise. Indra is taken as the god of the bright day, whose steed is the sun, and whose companions the Maruts, or the storm- gods: and then Professor MUller runs off into an interminable note about the word aruslia, red, translated in the verse red [steed], a note actually occupying eleven pages and a half, and involving the de- tailed citation and translation of some scores of Vedic passages, with a refutation of the views taken respecting sundry of them by the St. Petersburg Sanskrit lexicon. All this would be very much in place in 1871.] Mullers Translation of tAe Big-Veda. 177 a monograph, or as preliminary study to a dictionary-article on arusha; but so little has it to do with the exposition of this particular verse that it is great matter of question whether Muller, after all, translates the word correctly here. The next verse, namely, goes on to state that they harness to the chariot on each side his (Indras) two favorite bays. Why this, if his saddle-horse was already saddled and bridled? Or did the latter move on so fast while they only stood around, that it escaped their hands, so that they had, as the next best thing, to turn to and put the double team into the wagon, that the impatient god might not lose his ride up the firmament? Surely, if the horses are harnessed in the second verse, and if the two verses belong together, it must be the bright red chariot that is harnessed (for the verb is one that is freely employed of either chariot or horses) in the first. Or can Professor Muller prove to us that the sun may be taken as Indras steed, but not as his chariot? Something from the rest of the Veda to illustrate the relation of the sun and Indra, who is no solar deity, would have been far more welcome than the discussion about red. Again, who are the bystanders here referred to? and how can they stand about, and yet harness something that is moving onward? Is this such a satisfying conception that it should justify an extremely violent and improbable grammatical process like that of rendering pdri tasthz~shas as if the reading were paritasthiv4nsas? The parti- cipial form tasthz~shas has no right to be anything but an accusative plural, or a genitive or ablative singular; let us have the authority for making a nominative plural of it, and treating pdri as its prefix, and better authority than the mere dictum of a Hindu grammarian to the effect that the two forms are interchangeable. To us the passage seems most probably one of those not infrequent ones in which forms of the two roots here found are set over against one another, as signifying the moving and the fixed or persistent: moving forth from that which stands fast; that is to say, the suns orb swings itself up into the firmament from among the immovable hills out of which he seems to rise. Once more, by rendering the last third of the verse the lights in heaven shine forth, the translator both misses the assonance found in the origi- nal, rocante rocana, and makes the expression tame by connecting the locative with the noun instead of the verb: render rather gleams glimmer in the sky, or a sheen shines out in the sky, or something like this. We do not mean that this verse should be taken as a specimen.of MUllers best work as a translator and commentator, or even of his average work. But it does bring to light, if in an exaggerated form, some of his characteristic faults. His notes are far from showing that VOL. CXIII.NO. 232. 12 178 Mailers Translation of the Rig-Veda. [July, sound and thoughtful judgment, that moderation and economy, which are among the most precious qualities of an exegete. On the contrary, they display a degree of heedless lavishness, in matter, style, and mode of printing, as if the author were in too much haste to be either select or concise, or as if his one main object had been to fill out the covers of a volume, with as little expense to himself as possible. Of course, he presents us with much that is very valuable, and which all students of the Veda will accept with lively gratitude; but this he dilutes with tedious exhibitions of processes where results would have been suffi- cient, and with dwelling upon trifles while serious difficulties are slipped over unnoticed. He appears to be suffering under a confusion of the wants of the general reader with those of the special scholar; and, try- ing to please both, he satisfies neither. With one or two exceptions (notably Professor IRoth of Tftbingen, and perhaps also Professor Aufrecht of Edinburgh), MUller is, among all living scholars, the one who has studied the Veda most deeply, and whose version of its hymns would carry the greatest weight of authority. But the authority of any particular part of it would be best supported by the perceived success of the ~vork as a whole, by its distinctness, its consistency, its intelligi- bility and readableness. While Miillers fellow-students would greatly have preferred more translation and less explication, it is, after all, the public at large whom he will have most disappointed; the public, who were hoping for a work that should show them what the Veda really is, and should put it in an attractive light before them. Both classes alike will be slow to purchase the beginning of a series which seems likely to stretch itself out indefinitely, and after all to remain forever a fragment. Burnouf, with all his extraordinary ability, was an unfortunate model to select. He was essentially a pioneer and pathmaker. His versatile and enterprising genius had no sooner forced its way into the heart of some difficult subject, working out the method of investigation to be pursued, than he abandoned it and turned to another. Thus his results were always incomplete and fragmentary. In the Yeda he never did anything which was of advantage outside the circle of his personal pupils. In the classical Sanskrit, he began, in a style of costly luxury, the publication and translation of an immense work of modern origin and trivial value (the Bhfigavata Pur~na), and broke it off in the middle. In Zend he performed his most fruitful labor; but, presently laying it aside, he gave himself to the history of Buddhism. Here, too, his researches laid the foundation upon which all who come after him must build; but he himself soon ceased to build on it, and threw himself wholly into the Assyrian inscriptions. In this last department, 1871.] Mullers Translation of tAe Rig- Veda. 179 where his aid would have been of incalculable value, he had not yet begun to produce for the world, when his untimely and lamented death cut short his useful activity. Burnouf was a giant in whose footsteps ordinary men should not try to walk; but MUller, unless he changes materially the scale of his Veda-translation, is likely to resemble him at least in leaving behind him an unfinished work; even should he realize the current prayer of the Yedic poets, and live a hundred autumns. It is doubtless in order to give, at any rate, a secondary kind of com- pleteness to his work, that MUller takes up first the hymns to a certain order of deities; and his plan is in this respect decidedly to be approved. He promises to finish in the next volume the hymns to the Maruts. Why he selected this particular class he does not inform us; perhaps it is because they are not numerous, and have not been much worked upon by previous translators. Of course, he has the right to choose what he will to begin with ; only we, on our part, cannot help criticising his choice, and wishing that it had been made differently. If it was any part of his aim to give a foretaste of the contents of the Veda which should be an engaging one, and to tempt those who dipped into it to pursue the study further, he could not well have made a more unfortunate selection. The Maruts, or storm-gods, are an uninteresting set of beings. They hover on the confines between the natural and the supernatural, between the merely phenomenal and the deified and divine. They have a vague and indistinct individuality, and are infer- tile of mythology and lively and fanciful description. And as they are, so are also their hymns. He who reads through the versions given in this volume, and asks for more of the same, must be sustained by a more than usual interest which he has brought to the work from with- out. If our author, on the contrary, had prefaced his series of versions with the hymns to the Dawn which, considering his known predi- lection for that element in Indo-European mythology, we might almost have expected him to door with a selection of hymns of various subject, containing rich mythologic material, with perhaps a tinge of human interest also, he would have made a far more favorable impres- sion, effectively fostering a study whose advance he certainly has greatly at heart. To the nature of the themes treated we have unquestionably to attribute in great part the tediousness of MUllers versions. But not wholly to this. It appears in his other works as well as here, that that remarkable facility and beauty of style which distinguishes in general his English compositions fails him in translation. Perhaps this is the severest of all tests of a foreigner, the power to translate into nervous 180 Mullers Translation of tAe Rig- l7~da. [July, and lively phrase in a language not his own: certainly, all our authors renderings, so far as we know them, are a little tame and spiritless. But we think it is also true that he has taken the work of translation somewhat too easily, put too little of his force into it, and been content to render words and phrases instead of determining to gain a vivid apprehension of a hymn as a whole and to reproduce it as it impressed him. We sorely miss, too, the poetic form. We were disposed, indeed, when reading his introduction, to assent to his claim that it was out of the question in a translation of this character to attempt an imitation of the original rhythm or metre At present a metrical transla- tion would only be an excuse for an inaccurate translation; but we have come to question whether he was right. It certainly is not im- possible to make a metric version which shalL reproduce with sufficient fidelity ones idea of an original; it may require considerable labor; but if we are to have only a dozen hymns in a volume, we have a right to expect that dozen to be elaborated to the very highest degree. Espe- cially have we been made doubtful of MUllers canon by seeing what Roth has accomplished. In the last volume, namely, of the Journal of the German Oriental Society (Vol. XXIV., 1870, pp. 301 if.), that great scholar has given a rendering, in the metre of the original, of two Vedic hymns, with brief accompanying comments, by way of setting forth what would be his idea of a desirable translation of the Veda. One of the two is of the dozen contained in Mullers volume; and, in order to set the two methods side by side, we have ventured to turn Roths version (with some modifications) into metrical English; with- out at all claiming to give again faithfully the terseness and vigor of his German verse. Muller translates as follows: The Prologue. The sacrificer speaks: 1. With what splendor are the Maruts all equally endowed, they who are of the same age, and dwell in the same house! With what thoughts! From whence are they come? Do these heroes sing forth their (own) strength because they wish for wealth? 2. Whose prayers have the youths accepted? Who has turned the Maruts to his own sacrifice? By what strong devotion may we delight them, they who float through the air like hawks? The Dialogue. The Maruts speak: 3. From whence, 0 Indra, dost thou come alone, thou who art mighty? O lord of men, what has thus happened to thee? Thou greetest (us) when thou comest together with (us), the bright (Maruts). Tell us then, thou with thy bay horses, what thou hast against us! 1871.] .Miiillers Translation of tite Rig- Veda. 181 Indra speaks: 4. The sacred songs are mine, (mine are) the prayers; sweet are the libations! My strength rises, my thunderbolt is hurled forth. They call for me, the prayers yearn for me. Here are my horses, they carry me towards them. The Maruts speak: 5. Therefore, in company with our strong friends, having adorned our bodies, we now harness our fallow deer with all our might ; for, Indra, according to thy custom, thou hast been with us. Indra speaks: 6. Where, 0 Maruts, was that custom of yours, that you should join me who am alone in the killing of Ahi? I indeed am terrible, strong, powerful, I escaped from the blows of every enemy. The Maruts speak: 7. Thou hast achieved much with us as companions. With the same valor, o hero, let us achieve then many things, 0 thou most powerful, 0 Indra! whatever we, 0 Maruts, wish with our heart. Indra speaks: 8. I slew Vritra, 0 Maruts, with (Indras) might, having grown strong through my own vigor; I, who hold the thunderbolt in my arms, I have made these all-brilliant waters to flow freely for man. The Maruts speak: 9. Nothing, 0 powerful lord, is strong before thee; no one is known among the gods like unto thee. INo one who is now born will come near, no one who has been born. Do what has to he done, thou who art grown so strong. lindra speaks: 10. Almighty power be mine alone, whatever I may do, daring in my heart; for I indeed, 0 Maruts, am known as terrible: of all that I threw down, I, Indra, am the lord. 11. 0 Maruts, now your praise has pleased me, the glorious hymn which you have made for me, ye men ! for me, for Indra, for the powerful hero, as friends for a friend, for your own sake and by your own efforts. 12. Truly, there they are, shining towards me, assuming blameless glory, assuming vigor. 0 Maruts, wherever I have looked for you, you have appeared to me in bright splendor: appear to me also now! The Epilogue. The sacrificer speaks: 13. Who has magnified you here, 0 Maruts? Come hither, 0 friends, towards your friends. Ye brilliant Maruts, cherish these prayers, and be mindful of these my rites. 14. The wisdom of Mfinya has brought us to this, that he should help as the poet helps the performer pf a sacrifice: bring (them) hither quickly! Maruts, on to the sage! these prayers the singer has recited for you. 15. This your praise, 0 Maruts, this your song comes from Mflndflrya, the son of Mflria, the poet. Come hither with rain! May we find for ourselves offspring, food, and a camp with running water. 182 .31?)lter8 Tran8lation of tke Rig- Veda. [July, Roth adds to his version the following account of the story, so to call it, of the hymn: The singer inquires (vv. 1, 2) whither the Maruts, the winds, whose whistling he hears, are hasting, and who is going to succeed in detaining them at his sacrifice. Then, in the form of a dialogue between the Maruts and Indra (3 12), the praises of the former are intended to be set forth; and this object is not unaptly accomplished, since, although the highest glory is given to Indra, their praise is finally put in the gods own mouth. Indra, so the dialogue runs on, usually united with the Maruts in lively course, goes this time alone, and is asked by them why he does not take them with him. He makes the evasive answer that he is on the way to a sacrificial feast; whereupon they are ready and eager to accompany him (5). Indra retorts derisively that they, who are all on hand for junketing, were not quite so forward when the matter impending was the dangerous fight with the dragon, whom he alone had slain (6). The Maruts have nothing to plead against this, but merely call to mind, with self-satisfaction, that they and Indra have done great things together, and that they mean to prove themselves his faithful allies in the future also. Indra has no mind to share his glory with them, and boasts (8) again of his exploits: and the Maruts are fain (9) to acknowledge his might without reserve, and extol him as the chief of the gods. This pacifies the god; he vaunts himself once more (10), but also thanks the Maruts for their frank and hearty homage, and declares that the sight of them delights his heart (12). Thus their reconciliation is sealed. In the closing verses (13 15) the poet turns to the Maruts themselves, and, naming himself, seeks to attract their attention to the feast prepared for them and to his skilful song of praise, and to win them to be present with their gifts. And the hymn itself reads thus: THE POET: 1. Upon what course are entered now together, Of common age, of common home, the Maruts? With what desire, and whence, have they come hither? The heroes make their whistling heard for longing. 2. Whose prayers and praises are the youths enjoying? Say, who bath turned the Maruts to his offring? As they go roving through the air like falcons, How shall we stay them with our strong devotion? THE MARUTS: 8. How comes it, Indra, that thou goest lonely, Though else so blithe? tell us what ails thee, master. Thou rt wont to talk with us as we go onward; Lord of the coursers, what hast thou against us? 1871.] Mailers Translation of die Rig-Veda. 183 INDRA: 4. I love the prayers, the wishes, the libations; The odors rise; the soma-press is ready They draw and win me with their invocation; My coursers here carry me on unto them. THE MARUTS: 5. So then will we, along with our companions, The free and mighty, putting on our armor, Harness at once our spotted deer with pleasure. Thou comst exactly to our wish, 0 Indra! INDRA: 6. And where then was that wish of yours, ye Maruts, When me ye sent alone to slay the demon? But I, the fierce, the powerful, the fearless, Have struck down every foeman with my weapons. THE MARUTS: 7. Thou didst great things when we were thy companions, By our united manliness, 0 hero! For many feats can we achieve, 0 mightiest, Indra, with power, wheneer we will, ye Maruts! INDRA: 8. I Vritra slew, ye Maruts, by my prowess, And my own fury t was that made me fearless. was I, with lightning armed, who made these waters, All sparkling, flow in easy streams for Manu. THE MARUTS 9. Before thee, mighty one, is naught unshaken; Among the gods is no one found thine equal; None horn, and none that s to be born, can reach thee; Do, thou exalted one, whateer it likes thee! INDRA: 10. Let my power only be without a limit; Wisely I finish all that I adventure; For I am known as terrible, ye Maruts! Whateer I touch, Indra is soon its master. 11. Your praise, 0 Maruts, now hath given me pleasure, The worthy hymn that ye for me have uttered, For me, for Indra, for the jocund hero, As friends should for a friend, with feeling hearty. 12. Truly they please me as they stand before me; In glory and in vigor they are matchless. 184 Mullers Translation of the Rig-V~cIa. [July, Oft as I ye seen you, Maruts, in your splendor, Ye have delighted, as ye now delight me. THE POET: 13. Who bath exalted you like us, ye Maruts? As friends go forth to friends, so come ye hither. Ye bright ones, fan to ardor our devotions; Of these my pious labors be ye heedful. 14. Here, where the singer aids the sacrificer, And Mftnyas art has gathered us together, Ye Maruts, to the holy sage come hither! These songs of praise the bard to you is uttring. 15. This is your praise, and this your song, 0 Maruts! Made by Mandaras son, the singer M& nya. Come hither with refreshment for our strengthning! May we win food, and meadows rich in water! If our transfer into English does not altogether fail to do justice to Roths conception and interpretation of the original text, no one, we are sure, can fail to see how greatly inferior is iVitillers translation. In Roths hands, the hymn gains for the first time a unity of design and reality of interest, becomes an actual hymn, a creation of poetic art, such as we see might have kindled the minds and aided the devotions of a primitive people. This liveliness of apprehension, this determina- tion to call nothing translateds which is not made thorough good sense of which is not understood in its whole connection and brought into a completely presentable shape, is characteristic of Professor Roths mode of working, as illustrated by him with reference to the Avesta as well as to the Veda.* His version may be assailable in points of detail, there may be words and phrases of which MUllers understanding is more accurate, as there unquestionably are others as to which both alike will hereafter be set right; but his ideal and his realization of it are markedly in advance of those of his rival. It should not fail to be pointed out that MUller, in his Preface (pp. xii, xiii), speaks with the utmost candor and modesty of his own trans- lation, as being, what every translation at the present time must be, a mere contribution towards a better understanding of the Vedic hymns, which on many points is liable to correction, and will sooner or later be replaced by a more satisfactory one; and that he estimates fairly and acknowledges handsomely the labors of his fellow-scholars. How much of doubt and uncertainty still hangs over the whole subject may * See his Contributions to the Interpretation of the Avesta, in the current volume of the Journal of the German Oriental Society. 18T1.] Midlers Translation of tlte Rig- Veda. 185 be clearly seen from the discordance, as exhibited above, between ver- sions of the same passage by the two leading Vedic scholars, which discordance appears still more striking when we compare the versions of the other three translators quoted by MUller. Its limits are gradu- ally narrowing, as the Vedic grammar and vocabulary are becoming more thoroughly understood, and, yet more, as the Vedic antiquity, its cir- cumstances, forms of thought, and creeds, are better comprehended; we heartily wish that MUller might see what appears so plain to many others that he would hasten on the time of accordance most effec- tively by giving us as rapidly as possible the results of his efforts at trans- lating, leaving us to infer or conjecture the methods of their attainment. There is yet another element in the volume, to which we have as yet made only casual reference, namely, the preface or introduction, of more than 150 pages. It is to be very summarily characterized, as almost wholly wanting in pertinence. About twenty-five pages con- stitute a real introduction to the translation; the rest has nothing to do with translation at all; it is a discussion whether certain hymns of the Rig-Veda, which pretty evidently did not belong to the text as at first made up, are or are not best treated as a supplement only; it examines the relations to one another of different scholastic forms of the text; it points out certain misreadings and errors of the press in the authors published edition of the Veda, and others which have crept into Aufrechts transliterated edition, and so on; and it ends with a pro- tracted and in part polemical discussion of certain peculiarities of Vedic metre, having no bearing on interpretation. All has its interest and importance, to be sure; but it does not belong here. If its author had no other opportunity of expressing his views on Vedic subjects before the world, we should not grudge his taking advantage of this one; but the pages of a score of learned journals are eagerly open to him, and even the prefaces of his Rig-Veda volumes are a far fitter receptacle of such matter than the one which he has chosen. On the whole, we hardly know a volume of which the make-up is more unfortunate and ill-judged, more calculated to baffle the reason- able hopes of him who resorts to it, than the first volume of MUllers so-called translations of the Rig-Veda: if the obligation of its title be at all insisted on, at least three quarters of its contents are to be eondemned as padding. MUllers name has now for nearly a quarter of a century been as- sociated in mens minds with the Rig-Veda. It was about the year 1847 that, having come to England with the simple design of complet- ing his collection of materials for an edition of its text and commentary, he was, through the influence and aid of Wilson and Bunsen, taken 186 Mullers Translation of the Rig- J7~da. [July, under the munificent patronage of the East India Company, and biddea to elaborate and publish his work in their service and pay. The Veda was not at that time begging for editors, and ready to accept whoever might offer, upon his own terms, and be thankful for him. One edition was already under way in India, and another nearly arranged for in Germany. Both these were broken off or laid, aside in Mullers favor, his position being supposed to give him peculiar facilities for the speedy and satisfactory performance of the task he had assumed. He ought, it seems, to have felt strongly the obligation imposed on him by this abandonment of the field on the part of possible rivals. There was a large and rapidly growing body of students of Indian antiquity, waiting and longing for access to the oldest and most impor~ tant work of the Indian literature, which he had undertaken to furnish them. Their disappointment has not been small. Six or eight years would have been ample time for finishing the work, if the editor had been willing to devote himself to it single-mindedly; now, after more than twenty years, two volumes out of six are still to be given. It was anticipated that, along with this great quarto edition with native commentary, he would employ his materials for a cheaper hand-edition of the text alone, for students use. Such a one he in fact began; but after so long a delay, and in so unpractical and costly a style, that it met with no favor, and was continued only to the end of the first book (out of eight). The need has since been supplied by Aufrecht, with Webers help, in the latters serial, the Indische Studien; and MUller has irretrievably lost the honor and satisfaction of being the first editor of the Veda. If the great bulkiness of the native comment rendered his task a long and severe one, the rapidly depreciating value of that comment also enjoined upon him the utmost attainable expedition. Twenty years ago the help of the Indian exegetes was welcome, and almost indispensable, to the Vedic student; now, European erudition has gone far beyond them, and their work is little more than a curi- osity, worth examining for its own sake, as illustrating one conspicuous department of Hindu literary activity. Hence, when in the Preface to this volume MUller strenuously asserts and defends the former value of the comment as constituting its present claim to complete publication, he is guilty of a slight anachronism. In fact, he is frank enough to say later that it was of great use to him in the beginning, though it seldom afforded help for the really difficult passages. And he shows us practically how it ought to be treated by a trans- lator, by respectfully making mention of its versions, but then disre- spectfully making no account of them, in constructing his own. These explanations will serve to show why it is that Sanskrit scholars 1871.] Adamss Life of John Adams. 187 do not feel themselves bound to any particular gratitude toward MUller for his labors upon the Rig-Veda. Whatever advantage his connection with it has brought to them, it has thus far brought infinitely more to himself personally. He claims, to be sure, on the first page of his Preface, that it required no small amount of self-denial to decide in favor of devoting a life to the publishing of materials rather than to the drawing of results, plainly wishing us to infer that he had dis- played this immense self-denial; but, only five pages later, he pleads further that, after all one cannot give up the whole of ones life to the collation of Oriental MSS. and the correction of proof-sheets, and fairly confesses that the two concluding volumes have long been ready for press, and as soon as I can find leisure they too shall be printed and published. Surely an astonishing instance of the blowing of hot and cold out of the same mouth! We have given above our reasons for believing that the translation now begun will not, unless its plan is speedily and radically changed, do much to increase the feeling of obligation toward its author. Not long ago there remained to him still the opportunity of striking a great stroke in behalf of Vedic study by making public the complete index verborum of the Rig-Veda which he must have had prepared for many years; but it is doubtful whether even that is left him now. On the whole, it seems as if he would be permanently remembered by scholars in connection with {he Rig-Veda chiefly as the first (and only) editor of the great commentary of S~yana. 2. The I2fe of John Adams. Begun by his Son JOHN QUINcY ADAMS. Completed by CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, JR. Philadel- phia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 2 vols. 1871. THE London Athenmum of April 1st, in a review of this Life, was pleased to say, The American world will in time forget Adams! With all possible submission to the better judgment of so infallible an authority, especially as to American affairs and American books, we must take leave to say that the American world will do no such thing. It may not be the wisest of worlds, and, like other worlds, it may have gone spinning away out of its proper orbit now and then, and appeared almost as foolish as some of the older worlds, but it does know and re- member its friends; and ingratitude to its benefactors, at least after they are dead, is not one of the vices of this particular Republic. To be sure, its memory is not sufficient to hold in liveliest remembrance all who assisted at its birth and kept watch over its cradle. It is only a very few names for which posterity has room in its mind and of which

1871.] Adamss Life of John Adams. 187 do not feel themselves bound to any particular gratitude toward MUller for his labors upon the Rig-Veda. Whatever advantage his connection with it has brought to them, it has thus far brought infinitely more to himself personally. He claims, to be sure, on the first page of his Preface, that it required no small amount of self-denial to decide in favor of devoting a life to the publishing of materials rather than to the drawing of results, plainly wishing us to infer that he had dis- played this immense self-denial; but, only five pages later, he pleads further that, after all one cannot give up the whole of ones life to the collation of Oriental MSS. and the correction of proof-sheets, and fairly confesses that the two concluding volumes have long been ready for press, and as soon as I can find leisure they too shall be printed and published. Surely an astonishing instance of the blowing of hot and cold out of the same mouth! We have given above our reasons for believing that the translation now begun will not, unless its plan is speedily and radically changed, do much to increase the feeling of obligation toward its author. Not long ago there remained to him still the opportunity of striking a great stroke in behalf of Vedic study by making public the complete index verborum of the Rig-Veda which he must have had prepared for many years; but it is doubtful whether even that is left him now. On the whole, it seems as if he would be permanently remembered by scholars in connection with {he Rig-Veda chiefly as the first (and only) editor of the great commentary of S~yana. 2. The I2fe of John Adams. Begun by his Son JOHN QUINcY ADAMS. Completed by CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, JR. Philadel- phia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 2 vols. 1871. THE London Athenmum of April 1st, in a review of this Life, was pleased to say, The American world will in time forget Adams! With all possible submission to the better judgment of so infallible an authority, especially as to American affairs and American books, we must take leave to say that the American world will do no such thing. It may not be the wisest of worlds, and, like other worlds, it may have gone spinning away out of its proper orbit now and then, and appeared almost as foolish as some of the older worlds, but it does know and re- member its friends; and ingratitude to its benefactors, at least after they are dead, is not one of the vices of this particular Republic. To be sure, its memory is not sufficient to hold in liveliest remembrance all who assisted at its birth and kept watch over its cradle. It is only a very few names for which posterity has room in its mind and of which 188 Adamss Life of John Adams. [July, it can make household words of daily mention. They only who have identified themselves with great changes in human condition, with the great cardinal points on which history turns, can hope for more than an historical renown, a fame which is to be looked up in hooks, hut does not come uncalled for and make a part of our daily lives. But of this small number of immortals, John Adams is one; and the Americaa people, instead of forgetting him, we are sure will hold him in fresher and fresher remembrance as time goes on, and this for personal as well as historical reasons. There are few eminent persons who have drawn so lifelike a portrait of themselves as he has done. His Journal is a marvel of self-anatomy and conscientious recording of the observations. It is no Confessions, like those of Rousseau, uttered in the ear of the public as his Confes- sion, and meditated and methodized with a single eye to the effect they were to produce on the minds of all and singular they should reach. He never imagined that the record he made of his feelings and opinions while a schoolmaster at Worcester, and a struggling lawyer at Brain- tree and in Boston, would ever be made the property of the world, and display him in all his weaknesses as well as his strength to all who chose to read. Had he never emerged from the obscurity of his first estate, and lived and died an unknown man, his Diary, unearthed a cen- tury after it Was written, would have been a most interesting and valu- able contribution to psychology as well as to history. Any man that will be at the pains to correct the defect which Momus pointed out in the making of man, and open the window in his breast through which the operations of his mind and the feelings of his heart may he observed and studied, may depend on being an interesting object to after genera- tions, however insignificant may have been the sphere in which he moved. A human being is always an interesting subject of contempla- tion, if he be truly portrayed. It is this that makes the charm of gen- uine correspondence, of letters which the writers never dreamed of ever meeting any other eye than that to which they were addressed. Madame de S~vign~, Lady Mary Wortley, and Cowper little imagined how delicious a part they were to form of the lives of us of whose exist- ence they knew as little as we do of the contemporaries of our great- grandchildren. To read their letters is to listen to their most intimate conversations with their dearest friends and to catch their minds in dis- habille. One never catches Horace Walpole so. lie is always en grande tenue, his hair powdered, his gold-laced coat and embroidered waist- coat on, and his sword by his side, writing to us just as much as to Sir Horace Mann, Harry Conway, or Lady Ossory. And we shall have no more true correspondence of famous people. Every 1871.] Adamss Life of Joirn Adams. 189 celebrated man now, when he writes to his nearest and dearest, knows that posterity is looking over his shoulder and will not bate him a jot or tittle. And this knowledge is fatal to that abandon and reckless unreserve which is the soul and charm of genuine letter-writing. The more s the pity. John Adamss Diary and many of his letters would have been always interesting, not merely as perhaps the most ingenuous self.revelations of ones inward nature ever made, but as giving glimpses of a state of society which is now passed away. It carries us back to a time when, with infinitely less wealth than now, the inequalities of condition were more marked and the artificial distinctions of society recognized and respected, which were all swept away by the heady currents of the Revolution. The Boston of a century ago was a very picturesquely beautiful town, sitting on her three hills and looking over the estuary of the river Charles to the lovely heights of Roxbury and Brookline in one direction, and seaward to her magnificent harbor, gemmed with wooded islands, and stretching out into the infinite Atlantic, in the other. It was the richest town in the country, and exceptionally so just a hundred years ago, from the profits made in the Spanish and French wars of the middle of the last century. It contained a culti- vated and refined society, living in garden-houses and in an expensive and luxurious manner, to which the wealthier inhabitants were always given, as appears from John Duntons account of his visit to the Great Town about 1680, and from Oldmixons, a generation later, who said, An English gentleman visiting Boston might suppose, from the politeness of conversation and the costliness and elegance of dre ssand furniture, that he was in the metropolis of England. And it is on record that one thing which provoked the taxation of the Colonies was the accounts of the wealth of Boston, as displayed in furniture, plate, and entertainments, carried home by the officers who were welcomed there with frantic hospitality on their return from the conquest of Canada. The houses of the last century, those of Hutchinson, Clarke, Sir William Phips, Governor Bowdoin, and many others, now all swept away, but which stood within living memory, the portraits of Copley, which preserve the dress of men and women of that day, the massive plate of which loads still remain in many old families, testify to the elegance as well as plenty of the living of the richer classes before the Revolution. The excellent Dr. Kip, the Bishop of California, in an article in the Galaxy on New York in the last century, most unneces- sarily endeavors to magnify his native city at the expense of Boston. The worthy prelate shows himself wofully ignorant of the Boston side of the story. Why, bless his soul, there was no time from I 650 190 Adamss Life of Joltn Adams. [July, to 1770 when the town of Boston could not have bought up, not only the city of New York, but the whole Province, including the manors and manor-houses of which he boasts so much, in which the Dutch magnates lived in the rustic plenty of rich farmers, as appears from Mrs. Grants Memoirs of an American Lady, rather than with the easy elegance of our wealthy gentlemen at their country seats near Boston, and indeed throughout New Englaiid. He tells us that the citizens of New York would collect in crowds to see the Patroon of Albany arrive in his coach and four, so rare were coaches a century or so ago l Let us tell him that no Boston boy would have turned his head to look at a coach from the time when as Judge Sewall (who kept one himself) records in his journal in 1698, he was met upon his return from circuit on the Neck by Lieutenant-Governor Stoughton in his new coach, to that when Governor Hancock went in his coach and six to meet President Washington in 1789, after waiting in vain for the Pres- ident to call on him first. We regret to say that this earliest attempt to vindicate State Rights lost the Father of his Country a good dinner, which was spoiled by the delay. But all this is not violently to the purpose of John Adamss Life. Returning to which we would repeat that, had his life ended with the Revolution, his Journal would have made him a permanently interesting person from the insight it gives us into a human soul, and the peep it affords at the way of life of the generation that looks down upon us from the frames of Copleys pictures in powdered heads and wigs, and velvet coats and embroidered waistcoats, and lace ruffles and silks, satins and brocades. But it is doubly interesting as the portraiture of the mind which perhaps did more than any other to give form to the institutions, State and national, of the country, and to whose sturdy common sense, refined into statesmanship, we owe as much for the consolidation of our civil liberties as to any military hero who vindicated them with his sword. John Adams, by his reception of us into his intimate confidence through his Journal, is a flesh-and- blood entity to us, as very few of our Revolutionary worthies are. He is not perched up on a pedestal, like Washington, and made to look ten feet high, without spot or blemish, a perfect monster which the world neer saw He had plenty of small weaknesses, such as most of us have ourselves, only we generally take care to keep them to ourselves. He was a grondeur in small matters, not over well pleased to see people whom he thought no better than himself better off and enjoying more consideration than he. lie accuses himself of envy, but it was a mild type of that malady, and it never struck into a vital part. His temper was hasty and not always angelic, in which particu 1871.] Adamss Life of JoAn Adams. 191 lar he was by no means alone either among his contemporaries or pre- ceding or succeeding generations. His state of mind during his youth and early manhood was doubtless that of thousands of oilier men work- ing their way upwards from an humble and obscure condition, and struggling against the vis inertice of those established in the position they wish to win, and against the jostling competition of a crowd of rivals engaged in the same eager strife. Happily, he can never be made an idol, a fetish superior to human frailties and infirmities, and endowed with impossible perfection, and will, thetefore, have a firmer hold on the affection and esteem of common people, who prefer a man of like passions with themselves to the best tricked-out of demigods. The Washingtonolatry, what very eminent men and notably the late distinguished Mr. Everett have attempted to impose upon us as the Established Religion of America, has already begun to yield before the natural reaction of the human mind towards heresy in all such cases. The worthy Athenian who was tired of hearing Aristides called the Just, and wished to get him out of the way, was a type of one side of our fallen human nature. We confess to a fellow-feeling with him, and rather think we should have slyly written the same name on a shell ourselves, had we been there. Mr. Bancroft, by his inju- dicious zeal for making Washington, not simply the chief, but the only actor on the Revolutionary scene, besides bringing about his ears a swarm of grandsons and great-grandsons and nephews and grand- nephews of the men whose merits Washington would have been the last to depreciate, has actually made his hero ridiculous and a bore in the eyes of common readers. We fear that too many of the lieges sympathize with a very eminent gentleman, who shall be nameless, who was overheard to say to a friend over the breakfast-table at Par- kers, one day, I say, dont you hate Washington? And we are sure that the crop of grivois stories about him which have sprung up so rankly of late years has been forced by the unwise attempts of inju- dicious admirers to apotheothize him. The life of John Adams as told by himself in his Diary as far as it goes, and by his grandson in connection with it and after it ceases, is particularly interesting as presenting the history of the Revolution from the civilian point of view. Historians have been so much given up to the military operations of that great movement, that we are apt to overlook the less striking but at least equally important part taken in it by the men out of uniform who raised the funds, conducted the correspondence, quieted the jealousies, adjusted the feuds, planned and carried out diplomatic relations with foreign powers, and, in short, did work without which the slow and long dubious successes in the field 192 Adamss ]i~fe of John Adams. [July, would have had small results. Of all these things John Adams did his abundant share. And his Diary shows us the course of his labori- ous preparation for just these services, beginning and industriously con- tinued long before he could have imagined the career which awaited him. Had he foreseen it and set himself deliberately to fit himself for it, he could scarcely have laid out for himself a course of reading and study more exactly adapted to his end. Through his whole course the traces of his early self-education are to be discerned. His Diary will always be most curious reading for the insight it gives, often uncon- sciously and unintentionally, of the first beginnings of the Revolution and of the signs and portents which went before it. We are introduced into the inner life of those times, and allowed to s~e the workings of the mind of a man, the representative of many besides, who is standing face to face with a duty beckoning to a path which may very probably conduct him to destruction, and all he loves to ruin, and who yet only waits to be assured that it has indeed a divine commission, to follow it without looking behind at what may come after. He deserves none the less credit for having chosen the more excellent way, because it conducted him to honors and power and fame; nor yet because he was but one of many who equally with himself put themselves and all they possessed upon what then seemed the cast of a very uncertain die. The gradual progress of the Revolutionary sentiment, before any but the most discerning spirits knew whither it must lead, is perhaps more clearly told in Nrr. Adamss Diary than in any contemporary story. From the immortal argument of the Writs of Assistance, through the excitements of the Stamp Act, the successive taxations, the arrival of the British troops, the Boston Massacre, and the trial of Captain Preston and the soldiers, the action of the town and of the Legisla- ture, the closing of the port, the suspension of the provincial govern- ment, and the assembling of the first Congress, all the preliminaries and preparations for the Revolution can be there traced almost from day to day. We would say just here that Mr. Charles Francis Adams hardly does justice to his illustrious kinsman, Samuel Adams, in the note to the passage relating to the trial of Captain Preston, in which he says that, to ascribe to him the advice to Mr. Josiah Quincy, Jr., to engage in the defence, in view of his known convictions respecting the soldiers, scarcely does him credit either as a friend or a citizen. This note was written before the publication of Mr. Wellss Life of Samuel Adams, and probably the sentiments of that great man were not so fully known as to this matter then as now. But it is now clear that there was no man in Boston so intensely interested in the soldiers having a fair trial, as a matter in which justice and the good name of 1871.] Adamss Life of John Adams. 193 the town was deeply concerned, as Samuel Adams. It was un- questionably he, and not John Adams, whose advice helped to decide the course of the younger lawyer, and it was at his house that Mr. Quincy consented to act. Indeed, in 1770 no one would have supposed John Adams to have been intended by the absolute expression an Adams,~~ any more than any one would have thought anybody else to have been meant by it twenty years afterwards. There is something very striking to the imagination in the varieties of life through which John Adams proceeded, though they came along so gradually, one after the other, that they almost seem like the due course of nature. His childhood spent in the obscurity of his humble Braintree home, his early struggles for independence, and his laborious industry inspired by no ignoble ambition, the part he took in the earliest movements of the Revolution, his removal to the continental centre of affairs, and his potential voice in their direction, his share in the Decla- ration of Independence, and in the nomination of Washington as Com- mander-in-Chief, and then his diplomatic years abroad, crowned by his name authenticating the Peace of 1783, and rounded by his represent- ing his nation at the Court of George III., make up a series of fortunate vicissitudes not often matched in the lives of famous men. Though his residence in London as Minister to St. James was made uncomfortable to him and his family by the slights and petty affronts by which the king and court relieved the irritation caused by his presence and the mortifying events which had brought it about, still there must have been a secret satisfaction in the knowledge that such feelings existed springing from such a cause. The New England yeomans son, whose life had been legally forfeit by his treason to the crown, standing in the circle at court, the representative of the victorious rebellion, must have been a Mordecai at the kings gate, but a Mordecai that must have been more or less than man if he had not privately enjoyed the annoyance his presence occasioned, considering the occasion of it. And it is an amusing thing for us to think of, if not entertaining to Mr. Adams at the time, how the special friends of America who had made St. Stephens Chapel ring with her wrongs, and had fought their way to power as her ally, were taken aback by the apparition of a man who incarnated the very victory which had swept them into Downing Street, and how they, too, ventured only to show the coldest of their shoulders to him. Such is the difference in the way things look from one side of the House of Commons and from the other! Burke and Fox had doffed the blue coats and buff waistcoats which the Whigs had taken from our continental army as their party uniform (still surviving on the cover of the Edinburgh Review), and donned the bag wigs and VOL. CXIII. NO. 232. 13 194 Adamss Life of John Adams. [July, swords and court dresses which his Majestys ministers then wore in Parliament, and the prosperous rebel looked very different in their eyes from the struggling one they had helped in their own political adver- sity. A cynic might indulge in some comments unfavorable to human nature on this text, but being the most amiable of critics, we shall do nothing of the kind. It is a thousand pities that Mr. Adamss European Diary substan- tially ceases upon his arrival at London, and the gap is not materially filled up by the little of his private correspondence during the time of his residence there that appears in his Works. It were curious to know whether their speedy relegation to private life made any change in the demeanor of those eminent Whigs towards the American Min- ister. That he knew many distinguished persons we may be sure, whom we wish we could have heard him tell about. His accounts of his residence in France, as recorded at the time and more largely related in his later comments upon them, are so entertaining, that we regret the more to have lost the lively details of his English life which he might have given us. His diplomatic services in France were of the highest importance, though the cold shoulder was turned to him in Paris as well as in London. His eyes were not exposed to the glamour which did in a good degree blind those of his illustrious colleague Frank- lin to the designs of the French government, and it was not well- pleasing to the Count de Vergennes to be seen through by a diplomate from the Massachusetts Bay. He saw things with an undazzled eye, and was not mealy-mouthed in speaking of them. He was even clear- sighted enough to discern, through all the splendors of her dress and surroundings, that Marie Antoinette, in the height of her beauty, though a handsome woman in face and figure, was much inferior both in coun- tenance and form to many beauties he had seen in France, England, and America. Having been a spectator of the shows of the courts of France and England, as well as of the more modest state of the Hague, having signed the treaty of 1783, which was the ultimate recognition of his coun- try as one of the family of nations, having been the first to stand as her representative before her discarded monarch, Mr. Adams came home to finish his public life in her domestic service. It was on stormy times that that service fell, when the sky was dark and the sea ran high, and it required intuition to divine the true course, and a firm hand on the rudder to steer safe to port. And John Adams, when in command of the ship, had mutiny among his officers, to aggravate all the natural diffi- culties of his situation. All the greater and lesser infirmities of his temper and character helped his very virtues to make enemies of those of his own political household, and to prepare the way for his fall, if l8tTl.] Adamss Life of John Adam8. 195 fall it might be called, which was mainly occasioned by his courageous independence which saved his country, without compromising her dig- nity or honor, from a disastrous and perhaps a fatal war with France, at one of the most critical moments of her existence. This was the crowning act of his public life, the greatness of which is now admitted by all reflecting minds, though it was never forgiven by multitudes of his old Federal associates as long as he and they lived, and in some degree disturbed the tranquillity of his long retirement. But that service, though great, was of comparatively a temporary character. The three acts of John Adamss life which have been of a permanent influence, and will be remembered as long as American history is read, are, first, his nomination of Washington as Commander- in-Chief; secondly, the part he took in the drafting and the adoption of the Declaration of Independence; and, thirdly, his substantial authorship of the Constitution of Massachusetts of 1780. It was a just pride with which he held up his hand and exclaimed, forty years afterwards, in reply to the inquiry of Josiah Quincy, Who drafted the Constitution of Massachusetts? This right hand!~ For that constitution, we believe it may be said with truth, was the most perfect form of a republican government ever made. Almost every deviation from its original provisions, certainly every one from any proposed by Adams, has been a blunder and a misfortune. It was our example which helped the other Colonies, just emancipated from the control of the mother country, in the attempts which they were making to find a substitute for what they had abolished. Had a brilliant visionary or an influential doctrinaire pi oposed some fanciful polity, resting on imaginary theories instead of the experience of mankind, in so leading a State as Massa- chusetts, the mischief might have been incalculable. That such were not impossible appears from the fact that even Poor Richard, the very incarnation of common sense, Dr. Franklin himself, favored the idea of a single legislative body, instead of the check on hasty legislation afforded by two. Happily, a statesmanlike mind, enriched with ample legal and historical learning, was called to the work, and the form he gave it not only endured unchanged for forty years, and still exists without vital alteration, but had a controlling influence over the final course of the othei~ States, and upon the Constitution of the government of the United States itself. On the 4th of March, 1801, he ended his long public life, and entered upon his quarter of a century of such repose as his active and restless spirit could enjoy. His long retirement, after so long a career of activ- ity, has something about it that affects the imagination as the fit ending of such a life. He would not have been the man he was if it had not 196 Adamss Life of JoAn Adams. [July, been sometimes agitated by the passions of the past and the present, and disturbed by divers vexations and annoyances, which irritated his jealous spirit and sometimes led to angry ebullitions which were neither graceful nor dignified. These things, however, lose their relative im- portance as time flies on, and the idea that will rest in the general mind of the last years of John Adams will always be that of a philosophic statesman, watching the turmoil he had left behind him through the loopholes of his retreat, and beguiling the hours of his retirement with the recreations of literature and the pleasures of friendship and family affection. The successful career of his son John Quincy Adams was the supreme gratification of his old age, and his surviving to see him his successor at the head of the nation was the crowning happiness of his life; while his death on the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence was a conclusion of the whole matter as fortunate as it was extraordinary. John Adams was, in an eminent degree, foremost among the founders of our civil polity, and his history and his character will always be an interesting study to successive generations of his countrymen who owe so much to him. Mr. Charles Francis Adams has therefore done wisely and well in publishing this popular edition of his life of his grandfather. We believe its sale already shows that the stupendous events of the last ten years, and the vastly broader stage on which they have been presented, have not entirely obscured the memory of the scenes and actors of the mighty drama of the Revolution. The glory of Gettys- burg may for a season throw that of Saratoga into the shade, but Americans will yet remember that the one as well as the other was a cardinal battle on which the fate of the nation turned. The Procla- ination of Emancipation may strike the contemporary imagination as something grander even than the Declaration of Independence; but right reason will soon show that it was but its complement, without which that immortal instrument would have been a mockery, a delusion, and a snare, a blurred and tattered parchment. Mr. Adams, with a natural and laudable filial piety, regrets that his father could not have finished the work which he had begun, instead of leaving it to be com- pleted by his son. We do not share in this regret. Mr. Charles Francis Adamss style is better adapted to such a narrative than that of his eminent father, which perhaps savors a little too much of the lamp, and bears too plainly the traces of that strenuous industry which was so charac- teristic an element in the composition of Mr. John Quincy Adaips. And, besides, it is scarcely possible, considering the earnest tempera- ment of that statesman, and his strong opinions which an unfriend might call prejudices, that he could have told the most stirring 1871.] Yeamans Studs of aovernment. 197 portions of his fathers history with the judicial fairness and impar- tiality which so honorably distinguishes this work. Its author deserves the thanks of us all for a valuable contribution to the popular stock of historical knowledge, as well as to the biographical literature of the language. This work, however, has one great deficiency. It has no Index, nor even a full table of contents. As this is to be a book of permanent interest, we trust that the author will have so essential a want sup- plied in future editions. We think that a law should be passed mak- ing the publication of an historical or biographical work without an Index a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment. With which truculent but wholesome suggestion we take our leave of the subject. 8. The Study of Government. By GEORGE H. YEAMAN. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. 8vo. 1871. AMERICAN political education consists in the study of the Federal Constitution and a cursory view of political economy. We cannot admit that history, as at present taught, conduces in the least to a cor- rect appreciation of political methods. When history is taught philo- sophically, and not picturesquely, the question will assume a different shape; but at present, the libraries of schools and universities are not full of books which throw such clear light upon the events of the past that we can afford to accept them at once as a record and as an expla- nation. The value of the study of political economy cannot be over- estimated; the value of the study of the American Constitution depends entirely upon the method of instruction. If it is taught in a broad and elementary mauner,* the result cannot but be good; if it is taught from a legal point of view, the result cannot but be bad. Cul- tivation of a political rather than a legal turn of mind is what is wanted. Interpretation and application of the Constitution involves, not questions of politics, but questions of the construction of a written instrument according to rules which, in so far as they resemble those applicable to wills and contracts, are of no more interest to the student of politics than to the student of any other moral science, and in so far as they differ from those rules, can only interest him as presenting a puz- zling array of incongruities and absurdities. For example, the division of the powers of government into judicial, legislative, and executive is to the constitutional lawyer a finality; to the philosophical student of poli * As, for instance, in Mr. Furman Sheppards text-book.

1871.] Yeamans Studs of aovernment. 197 portions of his fathers history with the judicial fairness and impar- tiality which so honorably distinguishes this work. Its author deserves the thanks of us all for a valuable contribution to the popular stock of historical knowledge, as well as to the biographical literature of the language. This work, however, has one great deficiency. It has no Index, nor even a full table of contents. As this is to be a book of permanent interest, we trust that the author will have so essential a want sup- plied in future editions. We think that a law should be passed mak- ing the publication of an historical or biographical work without an Index a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment. With which truculent but wholesome suggestion we take our leave of the subject. 8. The Study of Government. By GEORGE H. YEAMAN. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. 8vo. 1871. AMERICAN political education consists in the study of the Federal Constitution and a cursory view of political economy. We cannot admit that history, as at present taught, conduces in the least to a cor- rect appreciation of political methods. When history is taught philo- sophically, and not picturesquely, the question will assume a different shape; but at present, the libraries of schools and universities are not full of books which throw such clear light upon the events of the past that we can afford to accept them at once as a record and as an expla- nation. The value of the study of political economy cannot be over- estimated; the value of the study of the American Constitution depends entirely upon the method of instruction. If it is taught in a broad and elementary mauner,* the result cannot but be good; if it is taught from a legal point of view, the result cannot but be bad. Cul- tivation of a political rather than a legal turn of mind is what is wanted. Interpretation and application of the Constitution involves, not questions of politics, but questions of the construction of a written instrument according to rules which, in so far as they resemble those applicable to wills and contracts, are of no more interest to the student of politics than to the student of any other moral science, and in so far as they differ from those rules, can only interest him as presenting a puz- zling array of incongruities and absurdities. For example, the division of the powers of government into judicial, legislative, and executive is to the constitutional lawyer a finality; to the philosophical student of poli * As, for instance, in Mr. Furman Sheppards text-book. 198 Yeamans Stud~y of qovernment. [July, tics it is nothing of the kind. Such a student would be early taught that the executive has judicial and legislative functions; the legislature, judicial and executive functions; the judiciary, executive and legisla- tive functions: that each department in practice performs multitudes of acts which, by theoretical construction, would belong to the others. The student of the Constitution is too often sent out into the world im- pressed with the idea that of such distinctions as these no less can be said than that their seat is the bosom of God. It is to be noticed, too, that what is at least one of the most valuable parts of political education is, for reasons into which it is not necessary to enter here, now almost entirely beyond the reach of the cultivated classes in America, we mean that instruction which comes of prac- tical acquaintance with political affairs through the exercise of political functions. Our readers will hardly hesitate to admit that those classes have every year less and less share in the administration of the govern- ment of the country. If they are ever to regain the control so lament- ably lost, it will be through a careful study of the conditions of political life. If the reign of demagogues is ever to cease and intelligence to resume her sway, it will be through science, and not through that blind faith in the excellence of our institutions which a wicked jealousy of other nations induces us to mistake for patriotism. The case was very different at the time of the formation of the American government. Then the political classes were the intelligent classes, and it is not an immaterial fact that, if we examine the books produced in this country relating to political subjects, we find that the Federalist remains to the present day the best handbook of the political art for Americans. Written by men Qf the widest experience and the greatest practical sao~acity, it is replete with wisdom stanch enough to stand the severest of all tests, that of time. Tocquevilles Democracy is robbed of half its value by the taint of abstract and metaphysical speculations which pervades it. An able writer has pointed out in the pages of this Re- view, that his work is so much occupied with deductions from the principle of equality, that he continually fails to take into account the numerous other influences which are at work. The student should be taught to approach with great caution the writings of an author who considers it proper in a political treatise to undertake such extraordi- nary tasks as that of showing what causes democratic nations to incline towards pantheism, and how equality suggests to the Ameri- cans the idea of the indefinite perfectibility of man. Since Tocqueville, no book of any moment has appeared in Amer- ica, and not more than one or two in England, dealing with questions of politics in a broad manner. Such contributions to political science 18Th.] Yeaman8 Study of Government. 199 as have made their way into print are to be found scattered through the pages of magazines and newspapers. The quality of most of them induces the hope that they may never be preserved in a more perma- nent form. For a long time we have been content to find the staple of our political literature in glib declarations of natural rights and the meaningless resolutions of party caucuses. For more thasi a generation the true methods of political observation and study have been falling into greater and greater contempt, until it is no exaggeration to say that crazy speculation passes for genuine knowledge, and the dreams of fools are taken for the revelations of angels. Statements so general as these cannot be demonstrated mathemati- cally, but we can easily show by one or two illustrations what we mean when we speak of the decny of the political art. Among the many political aphorisms which wisdom and experience have at various times given to the world, none is truer nor more uni- versally admitted by those who have given the matter any attention than the saying of Burke, that no government can rest upon the heroic virtues. He might have added, that government is instituted for the purpose of dispensing with the necessity for the heroic virtues. It is not government, but anarchy, which sustains its life upon them. Revolutions are sustained by that very heroism which in ordinary times furnishes society insufficient support. To overturn a govern- ment requires enthusiasts, in other words, heroes, men who are capable of sacrificing to an ideal good the substantial advantages of life; men to whom self is nothing, to whom wife, children, the ordinary ambitions and prizes of the world, are forgotten things. Animated by such self-forgetfulness, not merely individuals, but whole armies of mar- tyrs, have nobly endured torture and death. But virtue like this is not seen in activity except at rare intervals, while an orderly government must rest on perennial, not occasional, qualities. The only motives upon which an orderly government can count are the motives furnished by such modest desires as the love of property, the love of law, the love of wife, family, and reputation. Any system which needs for its sup- port the higher and rarer motives of action will be sure to fail. This is but a corollary of the ancient rule, that government must deal with human beings as it finds them. It does not find many of them heroes. But, obvious as all this may seem, it is hardly going too far to say that one would most naturally infer, from the tenor of our political litera- ture, that it was not only far from clear, but that it was wholly untru