NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW. No. CC. JULY, 1863. ART. I. Titan: a Romance. From the German of JEAN PAUL FRIEDRICH RICHTER. Translated by CHARLES T. BROOKS. Boston: Ticknor and Fields. 2 vols. 1862. SINCE Carlyle first introduced Jean Paul to English readers, now nearly forty years ago, this endeared author, so unique in richness of fancy, tenderness of feeling, and grotesqueness of style, has been steadily becoming better known and more worthily appreciated among us. Still this growing apprecia- tion has beeii mostly limited to that small class of literary students who, combining insight with catholicity, are patient of difficulties and tolerant of faults when these are but the investiture and accompaniment of rare merits. Many persons of the best talent, and also of the utmost refinement and ele- vation of character, give Jean Paul the highest place ill their affections; but popularity, in any large sense of the word, he cannot be said to have as yet achieved, although he is fast achieving it. His name and a multitude of choice sentences from his works are familiar as household words with scholars and thinkers. Carrying his fame, his thoughts and senti- ments, along with them, they are diffusing them thence among the people at large, and will inevitably secure for him at last the permanent fief of a broad and pure renown. As an im- portant aid in enhancing the rapidity of this process, we grate- fully welcome the admirable translation, from the facile and practised pen of Mr. Brooks, of one of his amplest and ripest VOL. XCYII.NO. 200. 1 2 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. [July, works, now placed before us by the publishers in a most attrac- tive form. To the task of transplanting the Titan out of the German language into the English, Mr. Brooks has brought shining qualifications of many sorts. He has overcome innu- merable difficulties with consummate skill. His translation reads like an original composition. We congratulate him on the brilliant accomplishment of a great feat. We trust he will be rewarded for his long and loving labor by the concordant praises of the critics, and by the benefactions the work itself will bestow on the new students it will win in its new clime and presentment. We are acquainted with no eminent literary artist who more sorely needs, or better deserves, or will more richly repay, every help to popular intelligibility and circulation than Jean Paul; for the human and the literary idiosyncra- sies which his natural admirers find the most fascinating, are fatal barriers to his immediate reception into the regards of the average reader. His flooding sensibility, titanic imagina- tion, resilient whimsicality, endless entanglement of remote allusions, bewildering superabundance of metaphor, unfailing supplies of humor and irony, require, as conditions of relish- able reaction, greater resources of spirit, learning, and ex- perience than most readers have at their command. His repulsiveness never arises from meagreness of matter, or sloth of faculty, or vnlgarity of mind, or viciousness of temper, but from his extraordinary fertility, his half-chaotic exuberance, the transcendent richness and energy of his genius pre- senting drafts upon the intellects and hearts of his readers which only a few have the spiritual funds to honor. Such obstacles as these to the appreciation and enjoyment of the works of an author are a measure of the value and charm he will have to those who overcome them. In grappling with them, their own powers are stimulated and developed, and the results enrich them with knowledge and feeling they did not possess before. But most readers do not think of this. They do not seek discipline and instruction. They simply seek to while away the time in the most agreeable manner; and tha cheapest, tawdriest sensational tale will, in many cases, effect this better than the noblest philosophical or 3 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND 1115 TITAN. a~sthetic romance. The multiplicity of the claimants clam- oring for public attention now-a-days begets impatience and a habit of flippant judgment. The authors who furnish the most pungent entertainment on the lowest terms have the best chance for success. Those who offer the profoundest instruction and the choicest culture with the highest delight, but demand a proportionate price in the form of patient heed and varied effort on the part of the reader, are the most likely to suffer injustice and to be neglected. Jean Paul is a dis- tinguished example of this wrong. Many persons turn from his writings in despair, not to say disgust, because of certain bizarre qualities of th~ir style, certain broad incongruities of their substance, a certain combination of colossal vastness and intricate subtilty that makes them not perfectly easy to be understood. We have known even cultivated scholars, offended by the extravagances and obscurities of Jean Paul, to cast him contemptuously aside, as unworthy of their notice. Nothing could be more unwise or more unbecoming. True, it is a weakness to be insensible to glaring faults ; but, surely, it is a far greater weakness to be insensible to surpassing merits. The wise and catholic man will rank faults in their place, and there leave them; but he will cordially embrace merits, and endeavor to assimilate them. If an author has great essential and original value, glorious worth triumphant over all compromising faults, he should be studied and hon- ored, despite his defects. Not difficulties, but comparative worthlessness behind the difficulties, can justify neglect. Tin may glitter ready on the surface, and gold be covered with earth ; yet it is wise to dig for the gold. A quartz pebble is only a pebble, although it lie bare and clean; and a diamond is a diamond, although it be held in a rough matrix. A great and noble author deserves to be approached with faith and reverence, with girded faculties, indeed, but with a modest spirit of receptivity, and to be studied with unwearied care, that the features of his character may be reflected in his pupil, and his mode of looking at human life and the universe apprehended. To approach him with a scornful sense of su- periority, with the dry indifference of a dilettante, or in the spirit of a hard, critical surveyor bent on taking his measure, 4 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. [July, is an outrage. Nor can the frequency with which this is done lessen its intrinsic offensiveness. If he who stands beneath the dome of St. Peters or before the fall of Niagara divests himself of egotistic feelings, and allows time for his mind to grow to the dimensions of the scene, much more should he be humble and expectant who goes through the visible works into the invisible temple of a holy and sublime soul. Notwithstanding many seeming crudenesses and many real imperfections, the chief qualities which give power and attrac- tion to works of literary genius coexist in Jean Paul in a high degree. He has wealth. He teems with treasures. For his materials of statement and illustration, he ransacks heaven and earth, every province of art and learning, every depart- ment of science and experience, all varieties of natural scenery and human history. He pours forth thought, feeling, imagery, without hinderance and almost without bound. The copious- ness of his spiritual riches is somewhat astonishing. He has wisdom in a degree only inferior to his wealth. He is not a mere omnivorous collector of facts and opinions: he is also a comprehensive and patient student of them. He surveys the matter of his information and thoughts, arranges it, criticises it, knows its relative place and value, is master of its uses. His huge and ardent imagination melts down his mental treas- ure, and his massive and powerful understanding recasts it into appropriate shapes. He is an amply competent critic of all kinds of philosophical and literary works, a still more competent judge of human nature and experience and their manifold diversities. His strokes of discrimination are ever penetrative and shrewd, and his abundant aphorisms rank him with the soundest and most nutritious of ethical thinkers. He has likewise health in a striking degree. He invigorates his reader. To peruse one of his works is to feel a fresh breeze of victorious strength and sympathy. No one keener than he to see and feel the wickedness and the sorrow of men, and the discords and hurts of time and the world; but his reason, faith, and affection are so large, elastic, and healthy, that he finds more to revere than to despise, more to love than to hate, more to enjoy than to fret about. He neither mopes nor whines nor fumes. His bosom heaves with waves of joy; his 1863.] 5 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. voice rings in jubilant shouts; his eye is full of admiration and tenderness; his words are words of gratulation, encourage- ment, and healing. The true test of a literary work is, iDoes it strengthen and cheer? If so, clasp it to your breast. Does it sour, enervate, or confuse? Then fling it into the fire. Jean Paul may court this criterion, for the total influence of his writing is surprisingly wholesome. Furthermore, he has skill to set his thoughts in grace and beauty, to present his material in forms that delight the reader. However frequently he ap- pears to violate, or actually violates, the canons of good taste, shocking the proprieties of fine art, and repelling the fastidious, he is familiar with the principles of a~sthetics, knows thoroughly the rules for producing the choicest effects, and neglects them, not from ignorance or incapacity, but from an overbearing inward fnlness and impetuosity, or for the securing of some end which he considers of superior importance. He can on occasion give his thoughts and images with a delicacy and force, a simple perfectness of finish, a lucid precision, which might awaken the envy of the greatest masters of style, even of Goethe himself. His pages sparkle with separate sentences arid paragraphs, which are gems of blended wisdom and beauty scarcely susceptible of improvement. I use the acute mind of Fichte as a great knife, not to cut with it, but to sharpen my own on it. Whither shall the sunflowers turn which stand upon the sun? Towards the greater sun round which ours rolls. Past and Future wrap them- selves from us ; that in the widows veil, this in the maidens. The sufferings of the sinner are like an eclipse of the moon, by which the dark night becomes still darker and wilder; the sufferings of the saint are like an eclipse of the sun, which cools the hot day, and casts a romantic shade wherein the nightingales begin to warble. The artistic accuracy of insight and taste which he shows in the parts of his works often fail him in the wholes, so that their outlines are blurred, and their filling-up confnsedly crowded. This is because the misleading excess of his sympathy, or an over- fondness for the teeming products of his own mind, obscures his critical perceptions, and causes him, rather than reject any- thing that occurs to him, to indulge in a gorgeous accumula- 1* 6 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, tion of ornament, to associate with the straightforward mat- ter an involved medley of allusion, inference, and suggestion, a swift interaction of seriousness and wit, which cannot but confonnd and baffle an unprepared reader. This vitiating deficiency of clearness and simplicity in the plot and conduct of his works a formidable obstacle to popularity it must be acknowledged has produced in many quarters an unfortu- nate blindness to his extraordinary merits. That blindness, we trust, Mr. Brookss full and happy translation of the Titan will do much to remove from American and English readers. In addition to the four attributes of spiritual wealth, wis- dom, health, and skill, which Jean Paul shares in common with all truly great authors, the endeared and enduring bene- factors of mankind, he has many original traits well worthy of notice. His character is one of the most unaffected, vigorous, and beautiful of modern times. His life excellently nar- rated by Mrs. Lee is a romance of powerful interest, sur- charged with costly instruction, with inspiring influence, and with touching pathos.. He passed through many bitter strug- gles, but came out of every one undefifled and victorious. Temptations met him only to yield him new conquests of wis- dom and virtue. Afflictions smote him but to deepen the springs of his life, purify his faith, and widen his sympathies. The deliberate writings of such a man, writings to whose production he devoted his whole existence with the most ab- sorbing and heroic fidelity, his summed experience and estimate of human life, constitute a legacy not to be slight- ingly tossed aside, nor to be handled by any criticism into which gratitude and respect do not largely enter. Among the characteristic traits of Jean Paul, no one can overlook his sincere and constant love of nature. It is speak- ing too coldly to say that his enjoyment of natural scenery and phenomena was fervid and pervasive; it amounted to an intense passion. He walked hand in hand with the seasons, communed with forest and mountain, sky and river, as his breathing kindred, lay down on the hillside or in the meadow as a child nestling in the bosom of his mother. A sublime landscape or a lovely sunset would thrill him with rapture, melt him to tears, make him turn pale and tremble. A rose- 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. 7 leaf was as inebriating to him as the grape to others. His sensibility was world-embracing, world-dissolving. He had withal an Oriental vastness of imagination, which could suffuse the universe with its own color and feeling, animate the very spaces of infinitude, and set the wildernesses of astronomic orbs in motion. Nor did his powers of description halt a whit behind. Hardly a page of the Titan that does not afford some amazing instance. Thus did I see the sun go down under the waves, the reddening coasts fled away under their misty veils, the world went out, land after land, from one island to another, the last gold-dust was wafted away from the heights, and the prayer-bells of the convents led up the heart above the stars. 0 how happy and how wistful was my heart, at once a wish and a flame, and in my innermost being a prayer of gratitude went forth for this, that I was and am upon this earth. Is it not as if all the gods stood, with thousands of cornucopias, on the mountains around Lago Maggiore, and poured down wine and cascades, till the lake, like a goblet of joy, foams over and gushes dowii with the brimming juice? Overhead the whole second world, like a veiled nun, looked with a holy eye through the sil- ver-grating of the constellations. How firmly stood the world-rotunda, built with its fixed rows of stars high and far away over the flyiHg tent-streets of the city! How was the heated eye of Albano refreshed by the giant masses of the glimmering spring, and the sight of day slumbering under the transparent mantle of night! Over the dark meadows and bushes the dew had already been sprinkled, whose jewel-sea was to burn before the sun ; and in the north floated the purple pennons of Aurora as she sailed toward morning. On the hill, before the cascades that leap down with their lightuings upon the flowers, before the green of the flash- ing vale, the stream, like a wounded eagle, beats its wings all about on the earth. The moon, the benumbing lily which the earth wears on her breast; and the whole dazzling Pantheon of the starry heavens; and the city, with its pierced- work of night-lights; and the high, majestic, dark avenues; and on meadows and brooks the milk-white lunar-silver, where- with the earth spun itself into an evening-star; and the night- 8 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, ingales singing out of distant gardens ; did not all this stir omnipotently every heart, till it would fain with tears confess its longing? It is a pathetic fact, that his toilsome poverty kept him from ever visiting the seaside, or Switzerland, or Italy. In his last hours he said, I, who have described so many scenes, have never seen the ocean: I shall not fail to see the ocean of eternity.~~ But aniong the traits of Jean Paul a still higher place must be assigned to his boundless, yearning love of humanity. He had mind to reproduce and heart to cherish everything that concerns human nature. Whatever came within reach of his senses or his imagination took instant hold of his sym- pathy. Nothing was too low for his loving humor to embrace, nothing too high for his awe-breathing veneration to soar to. His pitying, wondering, adoring thought seems to have in- cluded equally the caterpillar journeying across its leaf and the sun journeying about the ecliptic, the moth shrivelling in the torch and the seraph worshipping in the blaze of Deity. Iiideed, the mighty exuberance of pure and generous emotion, the ocean of tenderness, exposed in the writings of Jean Paul, we know of no author in all the circuits of literature who can rival. He sorrowed in all the griefs, rejoiced in all the glad- nesses, of mankind. Every weakness or vice drew forth his pity; every virtue or power commanded his exultation and honor. For the humane feelings, inexhaustible wealth of compassion, sadness, longing, ecstasy, in all their forms, he stands in solitary pre-eminence. Such a constitution was equally liable to wretchedness and to rapture. Persons inca- pable of one extreme are also incapacitated for the other. Without a heart there can be neither tears nor wounds. Jean Paul conquered in the battle of life, and was prevailingly a man of abounding cheerfulness, although his tendency to sen- timent always remained somewhat excessive. Often, when in company and listening to music, his description of Albano might well have been applied to himself: His eye lost itself in the depths of heaven and of human life, and lie withdrbw himself to still his loud heart. He said he could kill him- self fantasying on the piano, as the nightingale trills itself to death. Weeping, lie also said, was his strongest but most 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. 9 weakening intoxication. Even to his latest years he was accustomed to seat himself at the piano and translate his feel- ings into tones, until, bursting into tears, he was compelled to cease. His cerebral centres were overstocked with nerve- force, which found its readiest vent in tender emotion, as in some persons it finds its readiest vent in fretting, in wrath, or in muscular exertion. This trait of Jean Paul, as a man and as a teacher, makes contact with him an admirable tonic and counteractive for the cold, meagre, and sluggish sensibility of ordinary men. The establishment through his works of an electric communication with his great flame-heart is a good. He puts in the mouth of one of his characters the question: Do you know the medicine of example, the healing power of admiration, and of that soul-strengthener, reverence? He knew it himself, and in his writings imparts it in its full virtue. He loves liberty, as a prime condition of human wel- fare, and eloquently vindicates it on all occasions. He nobly dared and bore personal risk and calamity by the publication of his bold and fiery Freiheitsbuchlein, or Freedoms Pam- phlet, protesting against any princely or state censorship of the press. He has courage to speak out what is tenderest and most sacred in him ; not sensitively hiding it for fear he shall compromise himself before the frigid and satirical. He has too much energy and daring to tolerate a timid reserve. He says, Only weak, caterpillar-and-hedgehog-like souls curl and crumple up into themselves at every touch; under the free brain beats gladly a free heart. His own keen and ebul- lient experience, combined with a comprehensive and sympa- thizing observation of human life, gives him copious resources and rare qualifications as a teacher. Few provinces, nay, few nooks in any province of thought and feeling, are strange to him. His pages are thickly interspersed with wise hints and helps to the best solutions of the problems that actually beset us in the conduct of our lives. While the sharp discernment and wit of his aphorisms give them entrance to the intellect, the profusion of kind feeling accompanying them carries them to the heart. Mildness on a countenance, in union ~vith en- ergy, is as enchanting as moonlight on a mountain. The wise man assumes a different average temperature for every 10 TRAITS OP JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. [July, individual, age, and people, and finds in holy human nature no string to be cut off, but only at most to be tuned. He is divinely equipped for his journey who has a dreaming heart, wings for the ice-chasms of life, and wide-open arms for every human breast. The selfish passions cut off the wings in- stead of the beak of their Promethean vulture, and so he digs forever into the heart. But while Jean Pauls unlimited affection flows around all mankind like a summer atmosphere, he is too sharp-sighted and just not to discriminate vigorously. He has a special fellow-feeling and a soothing pity for the poor, oppressed, broken-hearted, for all sufferers; and he has also special hyperborean, biting frosts and stings for the haughty and luxu- rious, for all pompous pretenders, all cruel tyrants. lie pours a celestial balm, distilled from wisdom, humor, and love, on the hurts of those; he mercilessly excoriates the pride and folly of these. Describing Thiennette, a poor orphan girl, he says, In her breast lay a sugared marchpane heart, which, for very love, you could have devoured; her fate was hard, but her soul was soft; cheerfully and coldly she received the most cutting humiliations, and felt no pain, and not till some days after did she see it all clearly, and then these cuts began sharply to bleed, and she wept in her loneliness over her lot. Of the pious and proud Frau von Aufhammer he says, 11cr heart was a flowing cornucopia to all men, yet this not from philanthropy, but from rigid devotion: she assisted, cherished, and despised the lower classes, regarding nothing in them, except their piety. Must not princes, he asks, them- selves learn to lie, being eternally lied to, themselves flatter, being forever flattered? Such shams as that of sending empty state-coaches to a funeral make him indignant, He burn- ingly denounces all hypocrisies, and demands simple dealing and truth between men. He expresses a deadly disgust to- wards that narcotic waste of high life through whose poppy- garden of pleasure men stagger about, sleepy and drunken, till they fall down in a twofold lameness. He delights to caricature the feebleness, affectation, and ceremony of fash- ionable circles, and many a telling blow does he deal under the disguise of a ludicrous exaggeration, as in the following 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. 11 example: The inhabitant of an imperial city binds on in front a napkin when he wishes to weep, in order that he may not stain his satin vest. He hardly ever indulges in satire without a mixture of sanative wisdom and kindness, or ad- ministers a rebuke without at the same time imparting a genial moral lesson. And now he is speaking in the per- son of his Quintus Fixlein must I part from my gossip, with whom I had talked so gayly every morning, and from the still circuit of modest hope where he dwelt, and return once more to the rioting, fermenting sphere of the court, where men in bull-beggar tone demand from Fate a root of life-lico- rice thick as the arm, like the botanical one on the Wolga, not so much that they may chew the sweet beam themselves, as fell others to earth with it. He has too judicial a vision, and too extensive acquaintance with man and life, to be the victim of any raw prejudice against nobles and princes, or their associates and dependents, however numerous and sharp his hits at them. It is one of his own aphorisms that young men and hermits have too severe notions of courtiers and mcii of the world. A prominent trait of Jean Paul is his exceeding love of childhood and children. All his writings are sprinkled with references to them, their sufferings, their privileges, their charming ways, their promise, their faults, the true methods of treating and training them. Whenever he alludes to them, his best thoughts come uppermost and his heart flows through his pen. We have in his biography a long and exquisite letter from his eldest daughter, describing the constant simple intimacy and overflowing fondness of his intercourse with his own three children. When his idolized Max died, the wretched father wept until his eyes became so impaired that they never recovered, and he became at last totally blind. One of his most elaborate works, Levana, is a treatise on the educa- tion of children. One of the most penetrative and beautiful of his lesser pieces is entitled, Why no Recollections are so Charming as those out of the Youth-time. Both his in- cidental and his premeditated handlings of this theme are marked by a diversified appreciation profoundly just and in- structive, and a plaintive sweetness that is most touching. 12 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, He says, in his Flege~ahre, Ah, were I only for a little time almighty, I would create a world especially for myself, and suspend it under the mildest sun; a little world where I would have nothing but lovely little children: and these little creatures I would never suffer to grow up, but only to play eternally. If a seraph were weary of heaven, or his golden pinions drooped, I would send him to dwell a month on my happy infant world; and no angel, as long as he saw their innocence, could lose his own. On seeing several little orphans who supported themselves by their labor, he said, in his own unrivalled way, Behold blossoms which already bear fruit! His unparalleled sensibility, combined with a broad and piercing perception little inferior, make him also the earnest friend and student of woman, the sympathizing master and expositor of all that is finest in her spirit and saddest in her lot. Woman has never had among literary men a more stanch or a more judicious defender, counsellor, and eulogist than Jean Paul. And this in his life as well as in his books. Though throwii much into personal relations with gifted and lovely women, possessing a singular fascination over them, and often strongly and subtly tempted, he was throughout his life invariably true and pure. Few, very few men have a greater claim on the gratitude and honor of women, nay, on their love and reverence, than Jean Paul. They cannot read him with- out throbbing hearts in many passages, streaming tears in many others, valuable instruction and elevating impulse in nearly all. We must quote a few imperfect specimens of his expression in this relation. Perhaps thou wouldst deserve the name of the Fair, even because thou art the Suffering sex. And if Professor Hunczogsky in Vienna modelled all the wounds of the human frame in wax, to teach his pupils how to cure them, I also, thou good sex, am representing in little figures the cuts and scars of thy spirit, though only to keep away rude hands from inflicting new ones. A continual smile is often, on mens faces, but not on maidens, the title- vignette of falsehood. In the old ludicial trials between man and wife, the man stood commonly up to his stomach in a pit, in order to bring his strength down to a level with 1863.] 13 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. the womans, and she struck at him with a stone tied up in a veil; but in the matrimonial duels the man seems to stand in the free air and the woman in the earth, and she often has only the veil without the stone. He did not yet suffi- ciently know those polished women, who have refinement without wit, sensibility without fire, clearness without cold- ness: who borrow of the snail his feelers, his softness, his coolness, and his dumb gait, and who demand and deserve more confidence than they obtain. Has, then, no man ever yet experienced the pain of lost love, that he may know what a thousand times harder desolation it inflicts on a woman? Who of them has the genuine fidelity, which is neither a virtue nor a sensation, but the very fire which eternally animates and sustains the kernel of existence? Jean Pauls Extra- leaf, in the Titan, on The Green-Market of Daughters, is a terrible satire on mercenary marriages negotiated by par- ents, whose caustic irony is only less than its tragic pathos and truth of thought and fact. Also in his Hesperus he has an Extra-leaf on Daughter-full Houses, treating of spin- sters in a strain in which all that is wisest and most tender in such recent works as the admirable Afternoon of Un- married Life finds a full anticipation. Women can conceal nothing from Jean Paul; a more argus-eyed scrutinizer of their foibles and weaknesses exists not. He abounds in satiri- cal observations on them. But these observations are humor- ous, not sarcastic; meant to probe and rectify, not to wound. They are the remarks of one who esteems, not of one who despises. They do not convey gall, but a good deal of honey, with just a little vinegar. The friends of a woman, that is to say, her enemies, is one of these sly hits of his which make the reader, however sensitive, smile rather than wince. Jean Paul was the special favorite of noble women in his living person, and he will continue to be so in his immortal works. Madame von Kalb said to him, The tones that your spirit yields are sweeter without words than the sounds of the harmonica.~~ The most distinctive trait, however, of Jean Paul, that in which he stands supreme among authors, is his unriv4lled combination of serious earnestness and overpowering pathos VOL. XCVII.NO. 200. 2 14 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, with imaginative humor and comicality. He is at the same time a grave student and a satirist; a jocose philosopher and a de- vout humorist, He is as much at home in the sublime as in the ridiculous. He laughs and weeps, loves and adores, with the same rhapsodic sincerity, He is a three-headed, three-hearted giant, equipped with an equal perception of the droll and the dread, an equal feeling of the tender and the absurd, vibrat- ing swiftly through all that lies between the extremes. This association of contradictory endowments and defects is what astonishes and repels the uninitiated as they attempt his works. Intelligent readers of Jean Paul have always recog- nized this double nature in him. He was fully aware of it himself, and of its value, and freely played it forth with genial consciousness in what he wrote. It is singular to notice how it expresses itself in the twin characters which are associated and repeated in all his principal works. In The Invisible Lodge we have Ottoman and Fenk; in the Flower, Fruit, and Thorn Pieces, Siebenk~s and Leibgeber; in Hes- perus, Victor and Emanuel; in Flegeljahre, Walt and Vult; in Titan, Albano and Schoppe. The unequalled union in the soul of Jean Paul of emotional vastness and mobility exposed him to wide alternations of thought and feeling, which demanded relief in some way. This relief he found by fastening on the intermediate series of contrasts stretching from the verge of the awful in one direction to that of the ludicrous in the other. His profound sensibility made for itself an instinctive vent on one side in tender emo- tion, on the other side in wit breaking through the two escapes of bitter satire and comic humor. Hardly one of his works is there which does not evoke frequent tears over humble tragedies. Often, too, he writes in the rollicking spirit of an extravaganza. He sometimes describes the hardships of the poor with lacerating vividness, as if bathed in the blood of bruises he had himself received. Again, he writes as if the sun were always shining on a golden world, in which no one need sigh. In his Army Chaplain Schmelzles Journey to Fliitz, he makes the chaplain, who is a most arrant coward, possessed by the illusion that he is a hero, heap up demonstrations of his own inconceivable cowardice, under the conviction, all the 1863.1 15 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. while, that he is proving his courage. This is done with a perfect abandon, and a pungency of siy ridicule accompanied with genuine affection, which compel the reader to roar with laughter, yet which leave his soul enveloped in an atmosphere of complacent good-will towards everything. In single qual- ities of genius, with the exception of human sensibility, others have surpassed Jean Paul; in the blended operation of the apparently incongruous powers now under notice, no one has equalled him. In every chapter of his Nicholaus Margraf, composed in th~ very midst of his anguish and growing blind- ness, after the death of his darling boy, we have a Brobdig- nagian cachinnation; and through his prose monody on the death of Herder, at the close of his Introduction to A3~s- thetics, breathes a tone as plaintive as the sound of a thousand IEolian-harps, wailing at night in the solitary hall. A piety tender and lofty as that of F6nelon, but independent of any historic theology ; a fundamental mirthfulness as free as that of Rabelais, but without his liking for filth; a sympathy soft and lambent as that of Lamb, but without his limiting shyness and petite modes; an irony as caustic sometimes as that of Swift, but without his hate; a joyous humor sunny and world- embracing as that of Cervantes ; these attributes form a conjunction which sets the name of this writer above all par- allels in his kind. When we consider Jean Paul as an artist, we find a singular limitation in his genius. He has a gigantic creative power combined with a diminutive shaping power. He can grasp and associate truth, feeling, facts, phenomena, more copiously than any except the very greatest minds; but in grouping his material into coherent relations to a general design, fashioning it into symmetrical forms, giving it proper location, perspec- tive, and movement, many rank much above him who are in- comparably inferior to him in everything else. He suffers in popularity greatly in consequence of this defect. Most per- sons read chiefly for the story; with him the story is the least important thing, and is buried in gorgeous masses of incidental matter. His sporadic mind and style bewilder and weary the reader who has not agile faculties and wealthy resources to follow his dews of swift and complex allusion, 16 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, and to fill his swarming symbols with responsive meaning. One feels, after reading a work of Jean Paul, as if the treasury of some god had exploded, and his book had caught the scat- tering contents. Yet it is unjust to overlook or to depreciate the value of the substance because it fails of simple and lucid arrangement. That his plastic faculty is so far below his pro- ductive power, does not make the latter any the less wonder- ful. A dish of pearls may be costly and beautiful, though neither strung nor arranged. In striking contrast to the disproportion and discord exist- ing in this particular in Richter, a want of selective affinity and synthetic survey, Goethe displays a happy congruity or balance of the creative and the shaping faculties, a teeming fertility and a commensurate manipulative taste, a c ompre- liensive associating grasp and a crystalline severity of delinea- tion. It were an interesting inquiry, deserving a fuller treat- ment than is possible here, to seek the cause and meaning this. What is the relation or law regulating the connection of the creative and the shaping action of the mind? What determines the forms of mental productions, and makes one man in his works a vicegerent of beauty, anotber a bungling conglomerator? Mental production, the generation and emer- gence of ideas, is, in its essence, involuntary and unconscious. It cannot be directly effected by volition, only indirectly so- licited. All primary conceptions are created, and set in move- ment, in the ignorant darkness of our being, and are first recognized when, as if given us by inspiration, or mysteriously wafted within us from some foreign realm, they rise into the light of associative feeling and mutual relations. We believe that pure intellection in every form, disconnected with all sensation, emotion, or aim, is always the spontaneous work- ing of forces in the organic basis of the mind, the process unconscious, but depositing its results in consciousness. Yet we are well aware that we possess a power of influencing this procedure. What is this power? What do we do when we wish to produce something from the mind? We hold the wish itself up in consciousness, as a spiritual magnet or polarized centre, to draw accreting and complementary thoughts around itself. A vague ideal or plan of the desired end is thus 17 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. formed. This ideal, automatically furnished without our in- terference, we then set up in the mind as a conscious lure to draw out the requisite intellectual materials for the fulfil- ment and execution of itself; we place ourselves in a moving and attentive attitude, and hold it before the pre-conscious regions of the mind where the creative processes go on we let it play its incantation into that dark instinctive hive to bring the trooping products forth. Now the first condi- tion of a true artist is, that this incantation shall work with precision, evoking just the products needed, and no others, they adjusting themselves by a spontaneous polarity. Such a one is a born poet or creator. He is loaded with a spell, that music of Amphion to which the stones trip forward and fall into their ordered places, while the fabric rises in perfect symmetry, a thing of beauty, the delight of the contemplative Inind, a supplementary part or continuation of nature. But in most instances the lure of a preconceived end thus ex- posed before the originating intellect, the spell played into the dark workshop of the soul, works very imperfectly, bring- ing out either insufficient or supeifluous products, incongruous and burlesque matter which cannot be adapted to the plan in view. Then appears the second condition of a true artist, namely, that he is armed with an instinctive apprehension of what is fit and of what is unfit, compelling him to select and assimilate to his ideal all the former, but unhesitatingly to reject the latter, however beguiling it is. Now Goethe, in the first place, brings forth everything naturally in clean organic shapes, with neither too little nor too much. His creative faculty projects its products as arborescent mental crystalli- zations. When the proper stimuli are applied, they grow into beautiful form to a native automatic melody; as the incan- tation performed by the dynamic germ of a seed forces trans- muted earth and air into a tree. And, secondly, in other cases, he has a despotic apperception of what is ancillary and harmonious. He remorselessly banishes every impertinent intrusion, no matter how suggestive. He instantly throws aside everything deformed as superfluous, melts and blows away all the slough and slag, and looks the pure mass into perfect shapes. But with Jean Paul it is otherwise in both 2* 18 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, these respects. The spell works powerfully, but not with ac- curacy. In answer to its invocation prodigious quantities of matter appear which are unadapted to the plan, irrelevant to the purpose. And his sympathy with his production is so great that it biases his judgment, supersedes taste, and nulli- fies the rightful canon of acceptance and rejection. Whatever comes must be embraced. He cannot bear to turn his back on any pleading child of his brain. Thus his sympathy often overrules his critical sense, and aggregates his material into overwhelming, amorphous masses. The imagination of iRich- ter is as gigantic in mould and as sensitive in substance almost as that of Shakespeare; but it wants its sound firmness and its unerring co-ordination. On the whole, then, the relation of the creative working of the mind to forms of art is this. Spiritual products, ideas, and emotions are elaborated in an obscure dynamic realm of necessity, the ontologic darkness of the brain; and they arise thence into the complicated relations and free move- ments of consciousness, there to be fashioned and directed. This process, in the most perfect artistic natures, as that of Mozart in music, goes on in unprompted spontaneity, auto- matically, or under the influence of primordial stimulants administered by Nature herself in the organic deeps of the mind. But we can partially initiate or enhance and guide it by a conscious stimulant voluntarily applied. This stimu- lant is a preconceived aim detained in attention, acting as aix incantation to allure appropriate materials, and bring them into the significant groups desired. Then the critical judg- ment, or the faculty of taste, acts as a beacon, one pole of whose light guides the freighted ships into the port, while the other repels all the monsters and drift. The degree of artistic genius is marked by the conjoined power and precision with which these two functions are performed. But if the art of Jean Paul seems lame and weak in the conduct and total form of his work, we should not forget, or fail to see, that it is often exact and faultless in details. This is shown almost invariably in his maxims and incidental reflections, very frequently also in detached images, and in special passages of description. The story of the Titan,~ is 19 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND 111$ TITAN. highly dramatic and intense, yet it is weilnigh lost sight of in the tropical wilderness of riches by the way. So involved is it with mysteries and whimsicalities, wheels within wheels, that it is an arduous task to master its outline, and thread and carry along its incidents in any sort of collective unity. But there is hardly a paragraph of it in which there is not something rich and strange to stimulate the thoughtful, to gratify and instruct the curious, to touch or console the ten- der, to inspire the noble, to develop the sense of beauty, to cherish the love of virtue and humanity, and to clothe the ideas of nature and God with new attractiveness and majesty. To neglect or condemn this vast array of appetizing spiritual riches for its comparative disorder, is as foolish as it would be to despise a chamberful of gold because the ingots were not piled in regular rows. It is also a weakness of which some are guilty, to see only the excessive garnish and adorn- ment of Jean Pauls board, and so to conclude that he sets forth no solid feast. But it does not always follow that there is little nutriment where there is much condiment. Cannot a sword with a jewelled hilt be wielded as effectively as if it had a plain hilt? The plume does not injure the helmet; nor will a shopful of trinkets make a cabinet of gems worthless. The imagination, digested knowledge and experience, wit, pathos, wisdom, humor, and devotion of Jean Paul outweigh those of hundreds of favorite authors who have none of his harmless foibles. If any are inclined to question this state- ment, let them examine that portion of his works in which he most especially excels, in which, indeed, he appears to scarcely less advantage as an artist than as a thinker, namely, his critical studies of character and life. It is true that most of his personages are not wholly dramatized, but partly described, He ekes out his deficiency in the perfect interior possession and enactment of his characters, by means of outward paintings and expositions of them. He makes skilful use of the artifice of a chorus of explanatory and crit- ical remarks accompanying the action and dialogue, an artifice of which the greatest masters have no need. In a degree, he imposes the diverse features and elements of men and experience on persons, instead of thoroughly conceiving 20 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, original moulds of character, and running life and nature into them. Yet, in despite of this comparative limitation, by his wonderful psychological tact and his familiarity with the workings of human nature, especially on the side of the affections, added to his vast and acute knowledge and sympa- thy, he gives a surpassing interest and reality to the chief per- sonages in his works. They are living beings to us. We can never forget them, nor the powerful lessons they insinuate into our souls. They are acquaintances whom we have actu- ally known ; and, warning, amusing, inspiring, with their wickedness, their grotesque drollery, their grand and tender nobility, they stay with us, and we are glad to have them stay. We cling to the personalities of Schmelzle, Fixlein, Fibel, Katzenberger, Margraf, Gustavus, Victor, and a score of others, with the same tenacity with which we cleave to those of Shakespeares Shallow, Bottom, Touchstone, Falstaff, Bassanio, Jacques, and the rest. This is genius of a high order, no matter what abatements are made. Nor, w emay be sure, was the result accomplished without agencies of the utmost note and worth, calculated to reward a studious inves- tigation. The weaknesses and errors of ordinary authors are never so glaringly revealed, the genius and equipment of great authors never so impressively apparent, as when they deal immediately with the characters and lives of specialized men and women, give us the criticisms and estimates which are the results of their own personal consciousness and varied examinations of human nature and experience. No other province of liter- ature can have the importance, for readers of advanced devel- opment and culture, which belongs to this. Jean Paul courts this test. Here is where his best strength and skill, his subtlest insight and maturest wisdom, lie. In the Titan, we are introduced to a world of sharply defined and well- supported characters, characters of many qualities, grades, and positions, whose contrasts of spirit and conduct are strik- ingly brought out by a happy management of lights and shades in the incidents of the narrative and the conversation of the actors. There is the cold, able, imposing Gaspard, who neither hates nor loves, but with icy power moves to his mark; 21 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. the odious ventriloquist Uncle, the execrable Baldhead, with his double-distilled hatefulness of universal indifference and universal deceit; the vain and trivial Falterle, who is com- plaisance itself, also untruth itself, and who is always laboring before the looking-glass, like a copper-plate engraver, on his dear self; the lustful, treacherous, detestable mock-artist, Bouverot; the sincerely pious, though professional, old priest, Spener; the mean, irascible, hard-hearted father, Froulay, who hates from his very soul every lie he does not himself utter; the grotesque individualities and collocation of good Doctor Sphex and his fat drummer, poor Malt; brave and vigorous Dian, the Italian sculptor, healthy to the core, gen- erous, affectionate, full of his art, running over with joy true-hearted, unhappy Schoppe, in whom a vision too keen has grafted on a sensibility too tender a remedial satire, incarnation of wisdom and ridicule, of sky-kicking mirth and deadly sadness; the powerful, gifted, selfish, ruined Roquai- rol, a terrible being, at once fascinating and loathsome, with fiery eye, glazed face, and rotten heart, in whom, from sensu- ality and want of conscience, life has run down into a jelly of corruption; and numerous others, who, though subordi- nate in their parts, are carefully drawn, and possess no small amount of interest. The female characters in this romance also form a memorable group, all most distinctly defined, de- picted, and sustained throughout with singular felicity. Not one of them, however often or rarely she comes upon the scene, ever loses her distinctive personality, though, with the verisimilitude of nature, it is constantly varying in its mani- festations. We have the passive, victimized wife of Von Froulay; the frigid, hateful Princess, who plays the coquette simply to feed her pride with falsehood, and to scatter pain and vengeance from her womanishly inhuman heart; the impulsive, much-knowing Julienne, nobly scorning conven- tionalities in her self-poised superiority; the joyous, guileless, unsophisticated Rabette, betrayed and withering under the breath of Roquairol, like a fresh wild rose plucked and held in a blast of scalding vapor; Chariton, the model of a wife and mother, a household goddess, full of love and grace, duti- ful cares and energetic peace; the aerial, pathetic Liana, an 22 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. [July, angel of love arid sweetness, gentle to timidity, yet loftily strong, the uncomplaining sufferer, the beautiful fragility of her fading form seeming the transparent investiture of a spirit too delicate and too pure to stay on earth; the volcanic heart, haughty intellect, royal nature and bearing, of Linda de Ro.. meiro, the burning descriptions of whose superb beauty rival Shakespeares picture of Cleopatra in her barge, and literally intoxicate the reader; and, lastly, Idoine, the ideal woman, intermediate between Liana and Linda, with all of the one except her sickhiness, and all of the other except her extrava- gance, on the altar of whose being stand the pure images of Wisdom, Love, Moderation, Holiness, and Faith. Idoine, easily inclined by her tense temperament to fits of vexation, that little skirmish of wrath, had, by long, sharp exercise, freed herself from this finest, but strongest, poison of the souls happiness, till she at last stood in her heaven as a pure, light moon, without a rainy and cloudy atmosphere of earth. We have reserved Albano, the grand central character and hero of the romance, to whom its name of the Titan refers, for separate mention. We say that Albano is the Titan, the word being used in a good sense, denoting, not the heaven- stormer, but the strong one, who contrasts with common men as an Olympian with earthlings, as Hyperion with Satyrs. We entirely agree with Dr. Hedge in rejecting that specious interpretation which gives the title a bad sense by making it refer exclusively to the rebellious and vanquished Roquairol. The Titan here is not the heaven-storming, but the heaven- traversing, the sun-god, son of Cdus and of Terra, deriving his ideal and mission from the one, the topics and conditions of his action from the other, his life the resultant of the two. This felicitous statement finds a powerful confirmation in a passage which we have discovered in an earlier work of Jean Paul, the Flegeljahre. The passage reads thus: Men, with all their faults, are, in their loving youth, like the Titans: Heaven is their father, Earth only their mother; but later, the father dies for them, and the mother finds it difficult to nourish the orphans. The view of the French critic, whose fanciful and turgid exposition we are surprised that Mr. 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. 23 Brooks should apparently indorse, will not stand the test of scrutiny. The author himself in the work speaks of Linda as Albanos Titaness. Besides, every propriety requires the work to be named from its all-absorbing and triumphant hero, rather than from his mere foil. On Albano the author lavishes all his powers, and our interest is concentrated in him from first to last. Albano opens his eyes upon life as in a triumphal chariot, the fresh steeds stamping before it; he is born with a soul of flaming tenderness and impetuosity, transparently truthful, the unappeasable foe of the everlasting, dead sham- life of men. He arrives at manhood with a majestic form, symmetrical and handsome as a Greek statue. He has an ineffable scorn for everything mean or false, a powerful under- standing, a boundless enThusiasm capable of all noble ex- travagances. He is a soft constellation of near suns, a beautiful war-god with the lyre, a storm-cloud full of Aurora. He indulges in no vice. His conscience remains uncorrupted. At every step he derives new discipline and culture from ex- amples and warnings, from temptations and privileges. So, as he is tried in the furnace, he goes on learning to curb and deny, to spur and guide his nature, until he becomes virtu- ally a complete character. His passionate friendship with IRoquairol, and its bitter catastrophe, are painted with match- less tenderness and energy. He loves Liana, but a fraud first inveigles her from him, and then death forever snatches her away. He is next captivated by the magnificent and stormy Linda; but a fatal barrier is suddenly raised between them by. a horrible side-tragedy in which he has no guilt. Finally, his wounds are healed, he finds his true counterpart in the pure, deep-souled Idoine, whom he marries; and the romance closes, as all who really understand it in its integrity will see, with as rounded a poetic justice as is consistent with the known conditions of human life in its earthly limits. The purpose of the author in his Titan, therefore, is to depict the ideal man and woman; by means of descriptions, critical analyses, dramatic incidents, contrasts, and foils, to portray the true types of perfect manhood and womanhood. Such are Albano and Idoine. This aim runs through the whole gorgeous mass of the work, like a silver thread through a 24 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, mountain of jewels. It is the highest task of the human mind, and has been a favorite subject with many great au- thors. But it is wrought out in the Titan with a power and wealth of moral earnestness and wisdom not equalled by any similar attempt in literature. The last topic to be treated in this account of the traits of Jean Paul is his quality as a moral teacher, the ethical rank and influence of his works. In this particular he belongs with the best who have ever written. 1-us pages are sur- charged with the most wholesome and powerful persuasions to virtue and true religion. In regard to the ethical influence of a writer, we have to distinguish two modes in which he acts on others: first, the teaching which he unconsciously imparts, the silent but potent efflence of his character, of his secret spirit and aims; and, secondly, the morals which he deliberately sets himself to inculcate. The purposed and direct ethical instruction of Jean Paul is invariably sound and telling. It is always pure and generous in its intention, hardly even fantastic or overstrained in the conditions it pre- scribes. It is lofty enough to bear the immediate signet of duty and God, measured and simple enough to be applicable to practice. He was incapable of taking a low view of man or of his duty; nor could he ever raise a base motive above a noble one. He had thoroughly studied all the philosophical systems of ethics, as his writings show, and his soul abhorred the vulgar code which reduces all human motives to self-love. He is always the public defender and exponent of an unalloyed Christian morality in its most exalted form and in its most ex- acting applications, even as he privately strove, with a patient valor that commands our deepest homage, to live it himself. The moral influence which, without his will, exhales from the character of Jean Paul, and consequently from the pages which that character stamps, is also an influence of unadul- terated good, with this one exception, that his extraordinary overfuitness of tender feeling occasionally betrays him into the mawkish and the sickly. His excessive sentiment, not ade- quately drawn off by objects and events and duties, stagnates into sentimentality. It reacts into itself, and then injects its morbid states into whatever it afterward vents itself upon. 1863.1 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. 25 Thus his descriptions are frequently diseased, phosphoric, ghastly. He affects ghosts, graveyards, ghouls, horrible dreams, masks, corpses, imagery drawn from ulcers and ver- min. He seems striving to frighten and to nauseate. The page is covered with creatures that creep forth from his fancy, trailing mould and slime. Here are two of the least offensive instances: Above them lay the still, wounded heavens in the bandage of a long white mass of clouds. The warm tones of the nightingales, trilling in response to each other, sucked his heart till it was sore with soft vampyre- tongues. There are passages of this gangrenous and char- nd-house rhetoric in his Vision of Annihilation which are absolutely sickening, inc xcnsable, bad enough to breed a pes- tilence in the precincts of literature. His morbid excess of feeling seeks expression in these morbid images. This is his one besetting sin, but too well known by the readers of his smaller compositions as belonging to large numbers of them, from the terrible Speech of the Dead Christ down to the notes from his commonplace book. The fair-minded student noting this weakness will condemn and deplore it, then pass by it to fasten on the preponderant merits which it can only slightly qualify. Jean Paul was himself profoundly conscions of this fault, which drew its life from roots deep in his character, and he steadily endeavored to remedy it. He has in his works repeat- edly exposed the evil it is, and the evils it leads to, probed it to the very bottom, and given the wisest directions for its cure. From his earliest boyhood he vividly recognized this perilous dower in himself, and set himself with stoic resolution to the task of reducing it to a sober 6overnment. His Andachis- buchlein, or little manual of devotion, which he composed in the solitary nights of his youth, is filled with maxims which he wrought out as helps in subduing all sentimental excess, and in bringing his heart under the authority of reason and con- science. Vanity, insensibility, custom, make one steadfast: wherefore not virtue still more? Every painful emotion is a proof that I have been faithless to my resolutions. No one would praise you in a beggars frock: be not proud of an esteem that is given to your coat. Never act in the heat of VOL. XcVII.NO. 200. 3 26 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. [July, emotion: let judgment answer first. Evil is like the night- mare: the moment you bestir yourself, it has ended. Similar personal confessions, affecting proofs of the earnestness and wisdom with which he labored for self-amendment, frequently recur in his journal down to a much later period. He says to himself, Far too soft, Jean Paul, whose chalk still sketches the models of nature on a ground of melancholy: harden thy heart like thy frame, and waste not thyself and others by such thoughts. His noble exertions were rewarded. In his own life he was no puling sentimentalist, but an earnest warrior, and at last a conqueror, king of himself; a fervent friend, a faithful husband and father, a truly pure, wise, and mag- nanimous man. The fruits of his own painful experience remained with him for the instruction of others, and he em- ployed them with power and skill. Jean Paul drawing himself, or at least large elements and features of himself, as he was, as he felt he might have been, as lie knew he ought to be, in nearly all the most important and interesting personages of his works, takes good care to warn and guide his readers by the lessons he had so bitterly but so successfully learned. The trial of character and life, as lie exhibits it in the madcap satirico-humorist, Leibgeber, or Schoppe as he is named in his later appearance, tragically closes with a failure, in insanity, and death. This character is one of extreme interest, at once world-wise and child-honest, joining the most tearful humor with the most scorching irony. The moral of his defeat is the indispensableness, for the salva- tion of such a soul, of high and serious presiding purposes, and the regulating power of domestic relations. In the ab- sence of these steadying guides, the purposeless play of wit in a vigorous mind, above a soft and deep heart, like the cross- play of clectricities, produces fermentation, and then the whole nature is undone, falling into confusion and madness, tossed to and fro between hysteric mirth and despair. In Victor he delineates a person outwardly and inwardly great, with a po- etic temperament balanced by exuberant wit, but possessed by the irretrievable weakness of ever seeking either opportu- nities for soft and generous emotions or opportunities for jesting, instead of seeking to fiuid or create opportunities for 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. 27 useful and lofty actions. Accordingly, with all his strong and engaging qualities, he is the creature of accidents, his life and himself failures. In Emanuel the author depicts a mys- tical enthusiast, who lets lnxurious meditation and longing absorb the energies that should be dedicated to healthy work and enterprise ; a person of a rich and elevated spiritual na- ture, but enervated by an excess of tender feeling given to unreal objects, dreams, and wishes, pining in vague desires, exhausted by tears, unfit for the shock and jar of this world, and incapable of discharging the every-day duties of life. He fails of victory in consequence of sentimental enervation, as Victor fails from fickleness. The same high endowment and fearful peril recur in the character of Roquairol ; and again the trial closes in defeat, but this time a terrific and loathsome defeat, resulting not from irresoluteness in the struggle, nor from weakness in the combatant, but from his voluntary submis- sion, by the logical ultimation of vice, a perverse preference of sin and destruction to virtue and blessedness. IRoquairol has ample mind, feeling, energy, ambition; but an insane love of pleasure possesses him. Now enthusiast, now libertine, he ran through the alternation between ether and slime more and more rapidly, till he mixed them both. With no self- denial or rational ordering of his passions, devoured by the ulcer of vanity, guzzling his own feelings while playing with those of others, he becomes a hideous and execrable perver- sion of humanity. By the sapping and dissolving influence of reckless indulgence, his conscience undergoes deliquescence, and as the hollow fabric of his being collapses in suicide, we see the infernal Titan blasted and overwhelmed. In Albano we once more recognize the same powers and weaknesses of nature coexisting, and set amidst even severer temptations, but with an opposite result. In the sea of the world, he says, I will rise like a living man by swimming, not like a drowned man by corruption. Controlled by steadfast prin- ciples of morality, he reins in the fiery steeds with a master hand. Under the purifying and consolidating influence of exalted sentiments, surveyed by reason, the texture of his character grows finer and firmer, and conscience asserts its monarchic supremacy. At last, he becomes comprehensive 28 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, and calm in thought and faith, an inspiring exemplar of joyous serenity and grand achievement; the conquest is complete and as, by the side of the lovely Idoine, lie assumes his inher- itance amidst au admiring people, we see the supernal Titan crowned and enthroned. Moral teaching more timely, vital, searching, sanative than this, it will certainly be hard to find. Let us leave it with Jean Pauls own words. For when Albano had ascended to this victorious height, regretfully remember- ing the other Titans whom he had known, who had been de- feated, lie felt devoutly grateful for his own escape. He thought of the beings who lay sunk in graves around him, hard and barreiu indeed as rocks, but high as rocks too, of the beings whom Fate had sacrificed, who would fain have used the milky-way of infinity aiid the rainbow of fancy as a bow in the hand, without ever being able to draw a string across it. Why, then, did not I, too, go down like those whom I esteemed ? Did not in me also that scum of excess boil up and overspread the clearness? The functions of an author in literature are a reduced and enlarged reproduction of the moral functions of human nature in life. Jean Paul experienced these in his own person with such breadth and intensity, that it was natural that they should reflect themselves with uiiwonted vividness in his writings. His literary productions follow along in the years of his life in a parallel series with the epochs of his experience, mirroring his sorrows and struggles, his perceptions amid studies, his de- feats and victories, his memories and aspirations. From their very nature, therefore, they possess an intense ethical instruc- tiveness. They fall into three chief classes: the Satirical, beginning with Greenland Lawsuits ; the Huniorous, as the Life of Quintus Fixlein ; and the Comic, ending with Nicholaus Margraf. His largest and most serious works, Hesperus and Titaii, as well as maiiy of his small pieces, show these three styles in intermixture and alterna- tion. But the special qualities of his geiiius always display themselves in their fullest dimensions and their most un- hampered vigor in the satirical, humorous, or comic form. What, then, is the essential ethical spirit and aim of these respective modes of expression? 29 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. If we analyze the nature of satire, to discover its moral im- port and function, we shall find it to be, in essence, a contrast between something thought and something seen; a contrast, one side of which kindles reverence, the other side anger. It is a comparison, explicit or implied, made in presence of a conceived right and a perceived wrong; a comparison which qnickens admiration for the ideal good, indignation for the actual violation of it. Humor, in like manner, rests on or consists in contrast and comparison; but in spirit and pur- port it differs from satire. Humor is imagination, moved by tenderness, elevating into our sympathy things in themselves too poor and humble for our regard. It is the adornment of the simple and homely by means of imaginative associations. Love, copiously engendered and set free by grand and charm- ing objects, by divine principles and sentiments, diffuses itself over and transfuses itself into trifling matters, mean and ludi- crous things, naturally situated far beneath its range, and so lifts them into our embrace, and this is humor. It shines upon the sadness spread over human life, arid transmutes it into joy ; as sunshine sifting through a chill mist turns it into powdery gold. In satire the comparison goes upward from a deformed or haggard and bitter actual to an ideal grandeur and good far above, and the emotional result or deposit is scorn for what is seen lying in grim contradiction below. In humor the comparison goes downward from the embrace of truth and love, carrying with it in its descent the light and perfume of all winsome and beautiful relations, and shedding their ennobling associations and delightful influences over humble and imperfect things spread out far beneath. Humor recommends the ugly and insignificant to our esteem and affection by transfiguring and dignifying them with associated beauty and greatness. In the comic, we see the nature and functions of both satire and humor combined and heightened into caricature. The same latent or expressed series of con- trasts between what is and what ought to be the actual and the ideal is carried on, but carried on in burlesque exagger- ation impelled by an enjoying sense of the ludicrous; and its final moral intent is to exalt the lowly into sympathy by the association of pleasure, and to sink the ignoble into contempt 3* 30 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, by the weight of ridicule. Satire, by showing evil contradict- ing good, eugenders an opposing scorn for it. Humor, by associating the universal with the particular, awakens an elevating sympathy with it. Comic wit unites these two in fantastic exaltation, and, neutralizing, by the attachment of an associative pleasure, the hatred which a low incongruity naturally provokes, is a valuable lubricant for the soreness~ and weariness of human life. These offices of a moral teacher and censor Jean Paul fulfils with unequalled sincerity and energy. With bitter and bleed- ing fidelity he exposes and assails the injustice, harshness, cruel coldness, petty jealousies, so common among the poor and ignorant; and with remorseless truth he reveals and de- nounces the pitiless pride and luxurious sloth, the unmeaning ceremonial glitter and languishing indifference, the frozen or poisoned hearts and perverted heads, the insipid hypocrisy and glistening polish, to be found in the rich and aristocratic cir- cles of his time. To whatever threatens most to degrade man or to corrupt society he devotes his most stinging ridicule. Thus he has no patience with that vile inversion of religion which makes it a mere guard to keep men from perdition. He says of that vulgar morality which deduces all obligation from self-interest: I compare this cursed exaltation of souls, merely from low motives, with the English horse-tails, which always point to heaven only because their sinews have been cut. He entirely outgrew that spirit of dissatisfaction and querulousness which likes to tease others because it is itself unhappy. He writes in his private journal: And you, my brothers, I will love more, I will create for you more joy. I will limit my ~endeavors to making you cheerful, and turn my powers no longer, as hitherto, to torment you. And from that time he began to infuse into whatever he wrote that loving, sunny humor which, bringing the loftiest and widest into connection with the lowliest and narrowest, is adapted to make every man draw all humanity to his breast. Why not expect to find in- exhaustible interest and wonder in the parson of a little ham- let, in his house and grounds an idyl-kingdom and pastoral world? Does not every man move in the centre of the horizon, every breath coalesce with the general atmosphere, every 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. 31 window open on the universe, and every truth vibrate in the infinite organism of truth? The soul of Jean Paul is so full of poetic sensibility, fiery and gentle humanity, and natural piety, that whatever he produces comes forth spontaneously saturatcd with moral and spiritual meaning and beauty. Whatever his pen touches in- stantly becomes charged with ethical power and clothed with religious symbolism. A stroll in the open air was to him as walking down the aisle of a sublimer church, and he asked himself: Dost thou enter pure into this vast, guiltless tem- ple? Dost thou bring no venomous passion into this place, where flowers bloom and birds sing? Dost thou bear no hatred where Nature loves? Art thou calm as the stream where Nature reflects herself as in a mirror? His over- flowing sympathy does not allow him to look on anything with indifference, and his sharp sight will not permit him to con- fo~ind good and evil. He must, therefore, dissect motives and characters, and give them praise or blame according to their deserts. He cannot help stripping and stigmatizing deceit and cruelty, and eulogizing sincerity and love. He sets the hypocritical tyrant in the stocks for a deterring example, as in the following instance. Froulay seriously regarded him- self as moral, disinterested, and gentle, merely because he inexorably insisted on all this in the case of others. He re- tained the habit, when an open-hearted soul showed him its breaches, of marching in upon it throngh those breaches, as if he had himself made them. The penitent who knelt before him for forgiveness he would crush still lower, and instead of the key of absolution draw forth the hammer of the law.~~ In his inimitable softness of pity, his angelic sweetness of sympathy with the unhappy innocents of the earth, abused children of affliction, victims of unkindness smitten and bleed- ing invisibly, he has no rival. He says of a sensitive dying maiden with a harsh father, She had accustomed herself, before him, to dry away with her eye, so to speak, the tear, before it grew big enough to fall. And at another time he says, 0 thou who hast still a mother, thank God for her in the day when thy soul is full of joyful tears, and needs a bosom wherein to shed them! Such is his feeling of the pa- 32 THAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. [July, thetic exposures arid evanescence of humanity, that it breathes in almost articulate tones through his pages, To-morrow thy poor brother dies, then thou, more unhappy, followest after: ah! wilt thou vex and injure him to-day? This makes him in a rare degree a natural teacher of Christian morality. Jean Paul is especially famous for his treatmeiit of two ethical topics, Friendship and the Immortality of the Soul. No author whatever has written on friendship with such affect- ing fervor and fulness, insight and beauty, as lie. His works are an inexhaustible treasury of searching thoughts, delicious sentiments, and matchless poetic images on this great subject, which must forever be so close and dear to the heart of man. And it is a fact of great interest, that there is nothing in his writings on this topic, romantic as they are, which he did not himself live with his Otto, Herman, Oerthel, Vogel, Emanuel, Herder, Jacobi. The doctrine of immortality Jean Paul made the central principle in his system of practical philosophy. All the roots of hi~ being struck into it, all the tendrils and vines of his heart arid fancy clung to it and clustered about it. He meditated on it early and late, studied its evidences, explored its relations and implications, and, in addition to numberless detached references and remarks, devoted two distinct treatises to it. In his Campaner-Thal and his Selina, he dis- cusses the mighty question with a learning, an acute sagacity, a cogency of argument, an appreciation of the data, an elo- quence of feeling, and a variety of illustration, unequalled by any single author among the endless number who have made elaborate expositions of the subject. He writes: When, in your last hour, all faculty in the broken spirit shall fade away and die into inanity, imagination, thought, effort, en- joyment, then at last will the night-flower of Belief alone continue blooming, and refresh you with its perfumes in the last darkness. One ethical point in the works of Jean Paul and it occurs in the Titan, the most deliberate and matured of all his writings has often been called in question. It was earnestly condemned by all his friends, and is generally so condemned by those who read the work now. We refer to the fearful 1863.] TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND HIS TITAN. fall and ruin of the Countess Linda de iRomeiro. Few repre- sentations in literature inflict a more dreadful shock than that in the Titan where this superb and queenly being, despoiled, crusbed, lost, by a foul tragedy to which, through a deception as to the person with whom she is, she is a voluntary party, disappears forever from the scene. She has so many fascinating and commanding qualities, she is so glow- ingly described, her sentiments are so noble and her con- versation so eloquent, she moves before the imagination in such distinctness, the warm, incomparable sultana, that when by a gross treachery she is caused, throngh a single plnnge, to sink from her imperial height to the bottom of perdition, the ideal spectator, stunned and torn with pain, recovers himself only to denounce the harrowing catastrophe with in- jured indignation. This is instinctive, but it is none the less mistaken and wrong. The same vehement but superficial protest has frequently been made against great authors whose plots have had a tragic termination. The outcry against the lamentable fate of Clarissa Harlowe was almost overwhelm- ing; but Richardson remained firm in his refusal to alter it, asserting that his purpose was to instruct and warn, not to pamper, his readers. The same unreasoning clamor was raised over the dismal end of the queenly Zenobia in Hawthornes Bhithedale Romance, although that dark conclusion was ne- cessitated by the whole structure of the character, by every law of moral psychology and every demand of artistic congruity. So in the present instance; it is not the aim of Jean Paul as a moral writer to give pleasure by his art, but to give in- struction by his insight and power. It is not his duty to gratify an aesthetic interest which his readers may feel in one of the personages of his romance; it may, on the contrary, be his duty to disappoint that interest, and to teach them a grave lesson through pain. This passage in the Titan is condemned simply because it turns on an abhorrent crime, and is in- tensely painful. These objections are obviated when the pur- pose of the writer is understood, and the careful preparations, the linked sequences of thought and temper and incident, introductory to the dread crisis, are appreciated. But to dis- cern the significance of these prophetic preliminaries, ob 84 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND IllS TITAN. [July, scurely strewn through the voluminous pages, and clearly to master the authors design, are difficult. The work is so crowded with riches, that it needs to be slowly studied rather than hastily perused. The reader who errs in his moral judg- ment on some given particular is therefore excusable; since it cannot be expected that the reader of a romance will take the pains to do his author justice by indefatigably tracing out his purpose at the end of all the subtile dews intended to guide to it. The original from whom, with various modifica- tions, the portrait of Linda was drawn, was Charlotte von Kaib, a married lady of noble station, and of great gifts and charms, who at one period of his life was deeply attached to Jean Paul, aud exerted a lasting influence on him. She held very lax notions as to the sanctity of the marriage covenant, and indeed as to the need of the ceremony. With her gen- erous, passionate heart and lofty mind she held that artistic completeness, aBsthetic gratification, an ideal life of sponta- neous freedom, were the highest aims. Jean Paul means in Linda to give his contemporaries, among whom such views were very prevalent, an impressive illustration of their dan- gerousness. The intelligent critic who will go carefully through the Titan with sole reference to this point will be amazed at the nicety and the thoroughness with which every- thing is so arranged, as to make the actual development of the tragedy a foregone and necessary conclusion. He will then justify it on every ground, alike of ethics, and of art as related to ethics. It is the inevitable sequel from the con- victions and sentiments of Linda, the qualities of the persons with whom she stands in relation, and the combination of cir- cumstances into which they bring themselves; and it en- forces, with even shocking effect, a momentous moral of which there is always but too much need. There is not a single feature or element of the painful story which can leave any demoralizing impression on the reader: he can never efface from his mind the recollection of the insidious weakness, the loathsome crime, and the awful penalty; and that recollec- tion will always be a warning to him and a restraint upon him if he is himself tempted. This is true medicinal morality, in which the description of evil, instead of enervating and re 1863.1 TRAITS OF JEAN PAUL AND ILlS TITAN. 35 ducing by a voluptuous atmosphere of pleasure and delusion, cleanses and braces every virtuous energy by repulsive re- action. Then the contemplation of crime and woe purifies the soul by the action of the two motives of classic tragedy, pity and terror. Jean Paul was therefore right in withstanding all the protests and persuasions of his friends and critics, and retaining the substantial development of his plot for the unhappy Linda as he originally wrote it. He had a more solemn aim than to impart a shallow and momentary pleas- iire. He took a straight path, and with dire power scored into the very brains of his readers the stern lesson with which he felt himself intrusted. The only subject of regret is tkat he did not live to rewrite this part of the work, as he wished to do, for the sake of making his purpose clearer, elucidating the preparatory indications, and lifting into stronger relief the profound truth and moral, that character is destiny. For it is his enduring glory as a moralist, that he is one of that small class of free, penetrative, great minds, who in different ages have distinctly seen and proclaimed this deepest truth in moral science, namely, that the nature and law of retri- bution consist in the recoil of conduct on character, and the return of character into itself. The proper rewards and pun- ishments of all souls and deeds are contained in their own reactions. To those who appreciate it, this principle discloses the ultimate grounds at the same time of personal content, general tolerance, and invincible faith. And now, from the entire survey of his life, his character, and his books, we feel warranted in expressing the assurance that the name of Jean Paul Friedrich Richter, and the works he has written, will be increasingly held ill affectionate esteem as long as the sorrows of humanity elicit pity, the joys of friendship yield satisfaction, the moral virtues command rev- erence, or the love of God and the hope of heaven have disciples. .36 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, ART. II. 1. Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire. By SIR BERNARD BURKE, LL. P., Ulster King of Arms. Twenty-third edition. London. 1863. Royal 8vo. 2. The Historic Peerage of England, exhibiting under Alpha- betical Arrangement the Origin, Descent, and Present State of every Title of Peerage which has existed in this Country since the Conquest. Being a new Edition of the Synopsis of the Peerage of England. By the late SIR HARRIS Nico- LAs, G. C. M. G. Revised, corrected, and continued to the Present Time, by WILLIAM COURTHOPE, Esq., Barrister at Law. London. 1857. 8vo. 3. The Vicissitudes of Families. By SIR BERNARD BURKE, LL. P., Ulster King of Arms. Three series. London. 185963. 3 vols. Post Svo. 4. The Noble and Gentle Men of England; or, Notes touch- ing the Arms and Descents of the Ancient, Knightly, and Gentle Houses of England, arranged in their respective Counties. Attempted by EVELYN PHILIP SHIRLEY, Esq., M. A. Westminster. 1859. Small 4to. 5. Memorials qf Samuel Appleton, of Ipswich, Massachusetts; with Genealogical Notices of some of his Descendants. Compiled by IsAAc APPLETON JEWETT. Boston. 1850. 8vo. 6. Genealogy of Warren, with some Historical Sketches. By JOHN C. WARREN, M. P. Boston: Privately printed. 1854. 4to. 7. An Account of the Temple Family, with Notes and Pedi- gree of the Family of Bowdoin. By W. H. WHITMORE. Boston: Privately printed. 1856. ~vo. pp. 16. 8. Pictures of the Olden Time. By EDMUND H. SEARS. Bos- ton. 1857. l2mo. 9. lllemorials of the C~hauncys, including President C1hauncy, his Ancestors and Descendants. By WILLIAM CHAUNCEY FOWLER. Boston. 1858. Svo. 10. A Genealogical Dictionary of the first Settlers of New England, showing Three Generations of those who came before May, 1692. By JAMES SAVAGE. Boston. 1860 62. 4 vols. ~vo. 11. A Handbook of American Genealogy; being a C~atalogue

.36 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, ART. II. 1. Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire. By SIR BERNARD BURKE, LL. P., Ulster King of Arms. Twenty-third edition. London. 1863. Royal 8vo. 2. The Historic Peerage of England, exhibiting under Alpha- betical Arrangement the Origin, Descent, and Present State of every Title of Peerage which has existed in this Country since the Conquest. Being a new Edition of the Synopsis of the Peerage of England. By the late SIR HARRIS Nico- LAs, G. C. M. G. Revised, corrected, and continued to the Present Time, by WILLIAM COURTHOPE, Esq., Barrister at Law. London. 1857. 8vo. 3. The Vicissitudes of Families. By SIR BERNARD BURKE, LL. P., Ulster King of Arms. Three series. London. 185963. 3 vols. Post Svo. 4. The Noble and Gentle Men of England; or, Notes touch- ing the Arms and Descents of the Ancient, Knightly, and Gentle Houses of England, arranged in their respective Counties. Attempted by EVELYN PHILIP SHIRLEY, Esq., M. A. Westminster. 1859. Small 4to. 5. Memorials qf Samuel Appleton, of Ipswich, Massachusetts; with Genealogical Notices of some of his Descendants. Compiled by IsAAc APPLETON JEWETT. Boston. 1850. 8vo. 6. Genealogy of Warren, with some Historical Sketches. By JOHN C. WARREN, M. P. Boston: Privately printed. 1854. 4to. 7. An Account of the Temple Family, with Notes and Pedi- gree of the Family of Bowdoin. By W. H. WHITMORE. Boston: Privately printed. 1856. ~vo. pp. 16. 8. Pictures of the Olden Time. By EDMUND H. SEARS. Bos- ton. 1857. l2mo. 9. lllemorials of the C~hauncys, including President C1hauncy, his Ancestors and Descendants. By WILLIAM CHAUNCEY FOWLER. Boston. 1858. Svo. 10. A Genealogical Dictionary of the first Settlers of New England, showing Three Generations of those who came before May, 1692. By JAMES SAVAGE. Boston. 1860 62. 4 vols. ~vo. 11. A Handbook of American Genealogy; being a C~atalogue 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 37 of Family Histories, and Publications containing Genealogi- cal Information, chronologically arranged. By WILLIAM H. WiuTMoRE. Albany. 1862. Small 4to. FoR ten or twelve years, says Sir Bernard Burke, before the civil conflict broke out, the most intelligent and zealous of my genea- logical clients were from the other side of the Atlantic, all yearning to carry back their ancestry to the fatherland, and to connect themselves in some way with its historic associations. Massachusetts was more genealogical than Yorkshire, and Boston sustained what London never did, a magazine devoted exclusively to genealogy. My friend Mr. Somerby, a very accomplished American antiquary, employed himself for several years in researches through the parish registers of England for the parochial entries of the founders of the chief American fami- lies, and especially of the Pilgrim Fathers; and I have been told that a very large sum was given at New York or Washington I forget which for the purchase of a perfect series of our English county his- tories, as the best sources of American genealogy. * Vicissitudes of Families, 3d Series, pp. 288, 289. This statement is a sufficient justification to us for devoting a few pages to subjects so important in studying European his- tory, and so interesting to antiquaries and men of leisure. The English nobility is of Norman origin. Few of the Saxon families survived the Conquest, and those which did were subjected to the rules of the feudal system, introduced by the Conqueror. The earliest honors were territorial, the counts or earls being governors of counties, with high author- ity, and the barons feudal tenants. All the tenants in capite, whether by knights service or grand sergeanty, were required to give their attendance upon the sovereign at stated times, and at times to give advice. The transfer of the tenure to another person transferred the honors and duties to him. Thus were created baronies by tenure, and such were all the * The writer has been informed hy Charles C. Jewett, Esq., the Superintendent of the Public Library of Boston, that the Library of Congress, at Washington, con- tains a valuable collection of county histories, and that the Astor Library in New York, and Public Library in Boston, possess collections as complete as it has been possible to make them, the orders in London for them having been unlimited. That in the Boston Lihr ry has already cost more than $ 4,000. Mr. Jewett also bears testimony to the great demand for them, and the numbers of those who consult them. VOL. XCVII.NO. 200. 4 38 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, great baronies of the earlier Norman kings. It has for a long period been in dispute whether the possession of one of these ancient baronies entitled the owner to a writ of summons to the House of Lords. The question was frequently raised, but never decided until two years ago, when Sir Maurice Berkeley claimed a summons as proprietor of Berkeley Castle, and it was then declared that baronies by tenure had long ceased to exist in England. Baronies by writ of summons followed the tenure baronies. These were created by a writ of summons issued under the great seal to certain individuals to attend Parliament. Some persons were summoned regularly, others only occasionally, or even only once. The custom varied, also, as.to the heirs of a first baron. But if a person summoned actually sat in Parliament, he acquired a barony in fee, which descended like real estate at common law, the males taking in succes- sion, and the females together. In the latter case the bar- ony falls into abeyance, and so continues until all the heirs but one are extinct, or until called out of abeyance, in favor of one of the co-heirs, by the sovereign. Most of the older baronies now giving seats in the House of Lords have been derived in this manner, as those of De IRos, Dc Clifford, Cliii- ton, Hastings, Camoys, Willoughby dEresby, and Willoughby de Broke, the peers of these names being descendants in the female line of the original grantees. But for a long time baronies, as well as all peerages, have been created by patent, and the honor descends according to the limitation contained in the patent, which in England com- monly restricts the succession to the male descendants of the first peer, though occasionally it is extended to collateral and female heirs. In Scotland peerages were generally granted to the heirs general, so that it is morally impossible for some of them ever to become extinct. The foreign title of Viscount, which ranks next above that of Baron, was introduced in the fourteenth century. It has never been very popular, and was very little conferred until the reign of George III. The Viscounty of Hereford, con- 9 ferred in 1550 upon the Devereux family, is the oldest one giving a seat in the House of Lords. Next, at a long interval, 1863.1 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 39 comes that of Bolingbroke, conferred by Queen Anne on the celebrated statesman. The title of Earl is the oldest in the peerage, and was, as we have stated, an official name for the governor of a county or province, though not since the Conquest. It has long been the favorite title in England, and in Scotland the earls out- number all the other peers together. The oldest earldom is that of Shrewsbury, conferred on the Talbots in 1442. The title of Marquess, next above that of Earl, was seldom conferred until the reign of George III. The oldest mar- quessate is that of Winchester, enjoyed by the Paulets, upon whom it was conferred in 1551. Next in the English peerage is Lansdowne, created in 1784. In the Scotch peerage there are four marquessates; in Ireland, they are more numerous. The title of Duke was introduced into England by Edward III., who created his son, the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, a title which descends to all his successors, and gives the Princes of Wales a seat in the House of Lords. The duke- dom of Norfolk, created in 1483, is the oldest after Cornwall. Tbat of Somerset dates from 1546. This great title was rarely conferred, except upon princes of the blood, until the reign of Charles II. He and some of his immediate successors were very liberal in bestowing it. Of late, again, it has been be- stowed charily, and the number of peers bearing it has actu- ally decreased. The last created were those of Sutherland and Cleveland in 1833. It is understood that it was offered to the late Marquess of Lansdowne and the Earl Fitz-William, but declined by those eminent men. The House of Lords did not contain more than fifty or sixty persons in the time of the Tudors, and was compara- tively small until the accession of Mr. Pitt as Prime Minister in 1783. That statesman recommended a great number for the honors of the peerage, his peers included the wealthy county families of Lowther, Vernon, Bagot, and Lascelles, and many Scotch and Irish lords; and his successors in office have also generally been liberal in titles. The House of Lords, however, has not kept pace in increase with the population and wealth of the country. The country gentlemen have fur- nished most of the new creations. Next in numbers probably 40 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, comes the bar, and then those distinguished in political and military life. Many families have owed their foundation to trade and commerce; but the number of persons actually engaged in commercial pursuits who have been raised to the peerage has been small. It includes Lords Carrington, Ash- burton, Overstone, and Belper. Literature has one very great name, the late Lord Macaulay. The House of Lords now contains three royal princes, the Prince of Wales, as Duke of Cornwall, the King of Hanover, as Duke of Cumberland, and the Duke of Cambridge, twenty other dukes, nineteen marquesses, one hundred and ten earls, twenty-two viscounts, and two hundred and ten barons. This list includes all the hereditary members. There are also sixteen representatives of the peers of Scotland, twenty-eight representative peers from Ireland, and thirty-two bishops, in all, four hundred and sixty members. The Irish representative peers are chosen for life ; those of Scotland, for a single Parliament. While the Scotch and Irish peers are entitled only to select a cer- tain number of their order to represent them, many, and, in- deed, all the more influential among them, sit in the House of Lords by virtue of English titles conferred upon them. Thus, the Duke of Hamilton in Scotland sits and votes as Duke of Brandon; the Duke of Buecleuch, as Earl of Doncas- ter; the Duke of Leinster in Ireland, as Viscount Leinster; and the Marquess of Ormond, as Baron Ormond. The peer- ages of the three kingdoms number about six hundred and fifty persons, including twenty-seven dukes. While a large number of peers are peers of two out of three kingdoms, only three persons are peers of all, the Marquesses of Abercorn and Hastings and the Earl of Verulam. An Irish peer, when not entitled to a seat in the House of Lords, may sit in the House of Commons for any constituency out of Ireland. The second Marquess of Londonderry (better known as Lord Cas- thereagh) and the present Viscount Palmerston are distin- guished instances. It has been supposed that this privilege does not extend to Scotch peers; but the question has never been tested. It is seldom that a commoner is raised at once to a higher rank than Viscount, or even than Baron. George III. did 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 41 this but twice, in 1766, when William Pitt was created Earl of Chatham, and in 1784, when Sir James Lowther was made Earl of Lonsdale; and her present Majesty has done it but three times, in the cases of Mr. Thomas William Coke of Holkham Hall, the Nestor of the Whig party, created Earl of Leicester in 1837, of Lord Francis Egerton, made Earl of Ellesmere in 1846, and of Lord John Russell, made Earl iRussell in 1861. Certain classes of peers deserve notice. One of these em- braces the descendants of illegitimate children of the sover- eign. This has never been numerous, but was considerably increased by Charles II. That king, to the great dissatis- faction of the old nobility, created six of his natural sons Dukes of Monmouth, Northumberland, Richmond, South- ampton, Grafton, and St. Albans. The Puke of Monmouth forfeited his honors in 1685, and the dukedom has never been restored to his descendant, the Duke of Buccleuch. The dukedoms of Northumberland * and Southampton have be- come extinct; but the other three still exist, and the families of Lennox, Fitz-Roy, and Beauclerk are among the most influential in England. Charles James Fox, through his mother, Lady Caroline Lennox, was great-great-grandson of Charles II. It was to this pedigree that Burke alluded when he spoke of him as a descendant of Henry IV. of France. James II. created his son by Arabella Churchill, who took the name of Fitz-James, Duke of Berwick. He followed the fortunes of his father, and his honors were therefore forfeited. Entering the service of France, however, he became one of the most skilful captains of the age, and was created Duke of Fitz-James by Louis XIV., an honor still enjoyed by his descendants. Another branch is settled in Spain. We re- member no other peerage conferred upon the acknowledged natural son of a sovereign till 1831, when the late King Wil- liam IV. made his son, Colonel Fitz-Clarence, Earl of Munster. This brave and skilful officers promotion was cordially ap- proved in England. William III. was very liberal in peerages. Among others, he 4* This title, which hecame extinct in 1716, must not be confounded with those conferred on the Percys. 42 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, conferred five English and two Irish peerages upon his Dutch retainers, which, with accompanying grants, were among the causes of his unpopularity. He made Marshal Schomberg Duke of Schomberg, and his son, Meinhardt Schomberg, Duke of Leinster in Ireland. Both these titles, however, soon be- came extinct. He also raised Bentinck, Zuleistein, DOver- querque, and Van Keppel to the earldoms of Portland, Roch- ford, Grantham, and Albemarle, and General Ginkel to the Irish earldom of Athlone. All these titles are now extinct, except those of Bentinck, Duke of Portland, and Keppel, Earl of Albemarle. The courtesy titles borne by the children of the nobility often greatly confuse foreigners, and are the subjects of egre- gious blunders on the part of English writers who should know better. The eldest somi of every peer of the rank of an Earl is known, during his fathers lifetime, by the second title of the latter. The eldest son of the Duke of Devonshire is called Marquess of Hartington, and the eldest son of the Earl of Derby, Lord Stanley. But these gentlemen are merely commoners, and in official papers are called Spencer Caven- dish, Esq., and the Right lion. Edward Stanley, the latter being a Privy Councillor. The younger sons of dukes and marquesses, and the daughters of dukes, marquesses, and earls, have, in the same manner, the prefix of Lord~ and Lady to their names; and the younger sons of earls, and the sons and daughters of viscounts and barons, are styled Honora- ble. These latter titles are, of course, not transmissible by descent. The title of Lord is now used almost universally for the fifth order of the peerage, instead of Baron. Marquesses and earls are frequently called simply Lords; and sometimes, but now very rarely, dukes also are thus designated. The civil wars in England, and the changes in property constantly taking place in a country so densely populated, and where mercantile interests are so influential, have made great havoc with the old families. Of those not peers, we shall speak hereafter. Few peerages, except baronies descended through females, date back earlier than the reign of Elizabeth. All the English dukedoms, says Sir Bernard Burke, cre- ated from the institution of the order down to the reign of 1863.] 43 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. Charles II. are gone, except only Norfolk and Somerset. Winchester and Worcester (the latter now merged in the dukedom of Beaufort) are the only existing marquessates older than the reign of George III. The earls coronet was very frequently bestowed under the Henrys and Edwards; it was the favorite distinction, besides being the oldest; and yet of all the earldoms created by the Normans, the Plantagenets, and the Tudors, eleven only remain, and of these, six (Arun- del, Wiltshire, Worcester, Bedford, Rutland, and Lincoln) are merged in higher honors, the only ones giving independent designations being Shrewsbury, Derby, Hiintingdon, Pem- broke, and Devon. The present House of Lords cannot claim among its members a single male descendant of any one of the barons who were chosen to enforce Magna Charta, or of any one of the peers who are known to have fought at Agin- court; and the noble house of Wrottesley is the solitary ex- isting family among the lords which can boast of a male descent from a founder of the Order of the Garter. Among them, however, are members of the families of Courtenay and Grey. In deciding the antiquity of families, we are of opinion, with most genealogists, that the direct male line must always be the best. This is the feudal rule, which excluded all females, and in genealogy it is certainly the correct rule, although we do not base our opinion upon the reason given by some one, that it was part of the vassals duty to keep the secrets of his lord, which a woman could not do. This rule greatly reduces the number of ancient families in the House of Lords. Taking the time when they were first ennobled as the standard, the two oldest there are the Berkeleys, Earls of Berkeley, who were barons by tenure immediately after the Conquest, and the Courtenays, Earls of Devon, who occupied that rank in the twelfth century. The heads of these families were made bar- ons by writ of summons in 1295 and 1299 respectively. The Norman-Irish family of Fitz-Maurice, Marquess of Lansdowne, may probably be ranked next. Under the title of Baron Kerry, it dates from 1181. The Clintons, Dukes of Newcastle, date from 1299, and are the oldest of the ducal houses. Then come the Nevilles, now represented by the Earls of Aberga 44 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, venny, the Talbots, Earls of Shrewsbury, the Howards, Dukes of Norfolk, the Stanleys, Earls of Derby, and the families of Manners, Duke of Rutland, Hastings, Earl of Huntingdon, Devereux, Viscount Hereford, Grey, Earl of Stamford, St. John, Lord St. John and Viscount Bolingbroke, and Wil- loughby, Lord Middleton. All these were peers during the Wars of the Roses. With them also rank the great Scotch houses of Douglas, Hamilton, Gordon, Erskine, Hay, Camp- bell, Bruce, Lindsey, and Graham, and the Irish families of Fitz-Gerald, Butler, De Courcy, De Burgh, and a few others. The families of the great barons of the first century and a half after the Norman Conquest have almost all died out, but they can hardly be regarded as English. The reign of Henry VIII. saw the rise of many great houses, most of whom were enriched by the spoils of the monasteries. Those of Som- erset, Herbert, Russell, Seymour, and Paulet then first ap- pearcd in the House of Lords. Queen Elizabeth seldom granted peerages, and was parsimonious of all honors. Lord Burghley, however, her Majesty always made an exception. From him descends the powerful house of Cecil, represented by the Marquesses of Salisbury and Exeter. The Cavendislies were not ennobled until 1605, but two branches attained dukedoms before the end of the century. The Gowers, now Dukes of Sutherland, date from 1712, arid the Grosvenors, Marquesses of Westminster, reputed to be the richest family in England, were first made peers in 1761. The Byrons appear in Doomsday Book, but Charles I. gave them their barony. He also raised the Feildings to the earldom of Den- bigh, and the Quarterly Review remarks, that the first Earl is worthy of notice for two facts, that he was a lineal male descendant of the Imperial Hapsburgs, and that he was the ancestor of Tom Jones, two holds upon fame, which like anchors at bow and stern will keep his houses name stable forever. * Sir Henry Vanes son was made Lord Bar- nard in 1699, and from him descends the Duke of Cleveland. The Howards are the noblest family in Great Britain, but * The article from which this and one or two other extracts have been made is one by Mr. James Hannay, upon The Historic Peerage of Sir Harris Nicolas, in the number for January, 1858. It has also been republished among the other contributions of Mr. Haunay to the Quarterly Review. 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 45 not the most ancient. Two things are remarkable about their origin. First, in a period of Norman ascendency, they sprang either from the iDanes or the Saxons. It is certain that they are not Norman or French. Secondly, in an eminently mar- tial age, the premier house of England owed its origin to the law. Sir William Howard, Chief Justice of the Court of Com- mon Pleas from 1297 to 1308, is its first known ancestor. His grandson married the heiress of the Mowbrays, Bigods, and Fitz-Alans, and this match made the fortune of his race. The Howards were firm Yorkists, and followed unswervingly the fortunes of the white rose. John Lord Howard was created iDuke of Norfolk and Earl Marshal by Richard III. in 1488, and was killed at I3osworth two years later. His son Thomas, who eventually was restored to the dukedom, as Lord Surrey, was the English commander at Flodden Field. The third Duke of Norfolk, and his son Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, the poet, around whose name such a halo of romance has been thrown, at first were great favorites with Henry VIII., and were both Knights of the Garter at the same time, a most unusual honor; but they subsequently fell under the dis- pleasure of the jealous monarch, and were attainted and con- demned. Surrey was executed, but the death of Henry saved the life of the unhappy father. In the reign of Elizabeth, the fourth Duke aspired to the hand of the imprisoned Queen of Scots, and entered into a conspiracy to release her. For this he was attainted and beheaded. The dukedom and the office of hereditary Earl Marshal were restored to his descendant in 1660, and have been regularly transmitted to Henry, the eighteenth and present Duke. But it is not alone in the Duke of Norfolk that the Howards flourish. Besides him the Earls of Suffolk, Carlisle, and Effiugham, and the untitled Howards of Greystock and Corby, are direct male descendants of Thom- as Howard, the second Duke. The Earl of Carlisle and Mr. Howard of Corby descend from Belted Will Howard, and owe their fortunes to a marriage with the great heiress of the IDacres, in the seventeenth century. Lord Effingham is the representative of the distinguished Admiral of the time of the Armada. It is somewhat singular that these six branches are eq.ually divided between the Roman Catholic and the English 46 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, Churches: the Duke of Norfolk and the Greystocks and Cor- bys being of the former communion, and the three Earls of the latter. It must not be supposed that all who bear the name of Howard are descended from this house. There are other families in Great Britain and Ireland named Howard, one represented by the Earl of Wicklow, and some descended from a French refugee family of Ouard, who hear no relation- ship to the Duke of Norfolk. The Seymours now in rank the second family in the realm were a knightly family, of secondary importance, until the marriage of Jane Seymour with Henry VIII., who raised her brother to the Dukedom of Somerset, in 1546. He was snbsequently attainted and beheaded, and the title was not restored until 1660. Pride has always marked this dis- tinguished house. Charles, the sixth Duke, commonly called the proud Duke of Somerset, needs only a passing refer- ence. He was in truth, says Macaulay, a man in whom the pride of birth and rank amounted almost to a disease. In the patent of the title, precedence was given to the children of the first Duke by his second wife, so that until the issue of these became extinct on the death of Algernon, the seventh Duke, in 1750, the honors did not fall to the elder line. Sir Edward Seymour, of Berry Pomeroy, the representative of this, and the famous politician of the Revolution, showed the family weakness in a manner that greatly astonished William III., when to the remark of the latter, on their first introduc- tion, I think, Sir Edward, that you are of the family of the Duke of Somerset, lie haughtily replied, Pardon me, sir, the Duke of Somerset is of my family. The Seymours, like the Howards, are Whigs, and the present and twelfth Duke of Somerset is First Lord of the Admiralty in the Palm- erston Ministry, and has the reputation of being a man of high administrative ability. The rich Marquess of Hertford represents a younger branch of this family, and, nearly re- lated to him, we may mention Sir Hamilton Seymour, the distinguished diplomatist, formerly Ambassador at St. Peters- burg and Vienna. The Duke of Hamilton, the head of a house, says Lord Macaulay, of almost regal dignity, is Premier Peer of 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 47 Scotland, and chief of the famous Lowland family of Douglas. This dukedom descended to them in the female line from the Hamiltons in the seventeenth century. In addition to his Scottish honors, the Duke of Hamilton is Duke of Brandon in England, Duke of Chatelherault in France, and a Prince of the old German Empire. On the death of the last Duke of Douglas in 1761, the Hamiltons succeeded to the Marquessate of Douglas and the ancient earldom of Angus, and have since resumed the Douglas name. The estates, however, after the celebrated litigation known as the great Douglas case, went to the female heirs. Few families in Europe are more re- nowned than this, and few have a nobler residence than theirs in Hamilton Palace. The present and eleventh Duke, by his marriage with the Princess Stephanie, daughter of the Grand Duke of l3aden, is closely allied to the present imperial family of France, and to several reigning sovereigns of Germany. No families in poetry and romance if even in history equal the great border houses of Percy of Alnwick and Nevill of Raby. They were near neighbors, closely related, and generally friends, and their influence in the North was su- preme. The Percys of history were descended from Josceline of Lonvaine, son of Godfrey, Duke of Brabant, who married Agnes Dc Percy, the daughter arid heiress of the last of the Norman barons of Aluwick, and assumed her name. The barony of Percy was conferred upon their descendants in 1299, and the earldom of Northumberland by Richard II. in 1377. Henry, the first Earl, deserted Richard and aided Henry IV. to obtain the throne. Rebelling, in turn, against him, he was slain at Bramham Moor. His son, the gallant Hotspur, had already fallen at Shrewsbury, and his brother, Sir Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester, the early companion in arms of the Black Prince, had been beheaded immediately after that battle. Henry, Hotspurs son, and second Earl of Northumberland, was restored to the family titles and estates by Henry V., and was killed at St. Albans. His sons, Thomas and Ralph, per- ished, the one at Northampton and the other at Hedgeley Moor. Henry, third Earl of Northumberland, was slain at Towton in 1461, and the fourth Earl was killed by a mob at Thirsk in 1483. The fifth Earl was the first who died a uatu 48 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, ral death, but his second son, Sir Thomas Percy, was attainted and beheaded in 1587. Henry, the sixth Earl, the first lover of Anne Boleyn, compelled by his father to marry, against his own wish, Lady Mary Talbot, lived most unhappily, childless and separate. At last, says Sir Bernard Burke, sinking under a broken constitution, he could not bear up against the sorrow brought on by his brothers execution and his houses attainder, but died the very same month in which Sir Thomas had been consigned to the block. Mary restored the earldom in 1557 to Thomas, seventh Earl, son of the preceding Sir Thomas, but he joined in the celebrated rebellion against Elizabeth, known as the Rising in the North. Defeated in the field, he fled to Scotland, and threw himself upon the pro- tection of one of his hereditary enemies of the border, James Douglas, Earl of Morton, by whom he was basely betrayed to the English government, and executed in 1572. Henry, the eighth Earl, died a violent death in the Tower, while impris- oned there, but whether by his own hand or otherwise is still a mystery. The ninth Earl was convicted of complicity with the Gunpowder Plot, and sentenced to a heavy fine and im- prisonment. Algernon, the tenth Earl, espoused the cause of the Parliament in the Civil War, for there was never a time when a Percy was not ripe for rebellion; but by his self- ish, vacillating, and even cowardly course, he proved himself hardly worthy of his gallant race. Josceline, the eleventh and last Earl of Northumberland, and the last of the legit- imate male line of the Percys, died in 1670, and the title became extinct. His vast estates devolved upon his only daughter, Lady Elizabeth Percy, regarded as the greatest heiress in Europe, whose fortunes were as romantic as those of any of her ancestors. She was married, in name only, when thirteen years of age, to Henry Cavendish, Earl of Ogle, son of the Duke of Newcastle, who died soon afterward. Ap- plicants for the hand of the young widow came from all parts of the kingdom and the Continent. Among these were Thomas Thynne of Longleate, the richest commoner in Eng- land, and Count K~5nigsinark, a Swedish adventurer. The family, to prevent the success of the dashing foreigner, hur- ried up a m~ rriage with Mr. Thynne, and immediately sent the 1863.1 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 49 bride to the Continent. But Kinigsmark would not give up the great prize so easily. On the night of Sunday, February 12, 1682, Thynne was assassinated by some foreign ruffians, whom it is supposed the Count employed for the purpose. They were subsequently tried and executed, but K~5nigsmark escaped in consequence of lack of evidence to bring the mur- der home to him. Shortly afterward, the lady married the proud Duke of Somerset. On the death of their son, the sev- enth Duke, the estates and barony again fell to an heiress, who married Sir Hugh Smithson. His father-in-law had, in 1746, been created Earl of Northumberland with remainder to him, and he now assumed the name of Percy, and was, twenty years later, advanced to the dukedom.* Thus commenced a third family of Percy, descended in the female line from both the others, and to this have descended the ancient barony and most of the estates, in eluding Aluwick. The munificence of the last and Qf the present Duke will add new lustre to the illustrious name. The former greatly enriched the University of Cambridge, and built the Observatory. The latter has already erected and endowed three churches at his sole ex- pense, and has signified to the Bishop of Durham his readiness to build five more, involving an expenditure of more than 200,000. The illustrious names, says Sir Bernard Burke, that adorn the family tree of the Nevilles are numerous beyond all precedent. A Neville was Queen of England, and a Nevihle mother of two of our English monarchs. Twice was a Neville consecrated Archbishop of York, and twice did a Neville fill the dignified office of Lord High Chancellor: seven Nevilles were duchesses, nine Nevilles were Knights of the Garter; a Neville presided over the Commons as Speaker, and Nevihles with- out end pervade our national records. The Nevilles, like James Smithson, the founder of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, was a natural son of this I)nke of Northumherland. He hequcathed his fortnne to an illegitimate son of his illegitimate hrother, with remainder to the children of the latter, legitimate or illegitimate, and then remainder over to the government of the United States. This last person died, leaving no legitimate issue, and the hequest to his iilegitimate issue they not having heen specified hy name was held invalid hy the English courts, so that the United States succeeded to Mr. Smith- son s splendid gift. VOL. XCVII. NO. 200. 5 50 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, the ilowards, were Saxon, and descended from the marriage of Robert Fitz-Maldred, Lord of Raby, and grandson of Cospatric, the Saxon Earl of Northumberland, with Isabel Neville, the heiress of Raby, whose name her husband assumed. Subse- ~uently an heiress brought them tbe famous Castle of Middle- ham. Ralph Lord Neville was created Earl of Westmoreland by Richard II. in 1397, and was one of the most powerful sub- jects England ever saw. From his first marriage descended the Earls of Westmoreland, seated at Raby and Brancepeth. By his second marriage with Joan, daughter of John of Gaunt, Puke of Lancaster, he had Richard Lord of Middleham. The latter joined Richard Plantagenet, Puke of York, who had married his sister, in rebellion, and was beheaded after the battle of Wakefield in 1460. Edward EXT. the next year re- stored the estates to the son, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick and Salisbury, the greatest, says Hume, as well as the last of those mighty barons who formerly overawed the crown, and the hero of one of the best romances in the language. The King-maker, however, found a bloody grave at Barnet. In 1469, says Sir Bernard Burke, time house of Neville attained the acme of its glory. Within exactly one hundred years its ruin was accomplished. The Earls of Westmoreland had generally been Lancastrians, and, with the Percys, after the Reformation had adhered to the old religion. In 1569 Charles, sixth Earl of Westmoreland, and the Earl of North- umberland, concocted at Brancepeth Castle the Rising in the North. The Dun Bull of the Nevilles was again raised on high, and joined with the Crescent of the Percys in the last of the many rebellions of the feudal nobility. The effort ignominiously failed, and the honors and great estates of the unfortunate nobleman were forever lost. By the heroic aid of his wife, Lady Jane Howard, daughter of the poet Earl of Surrey, Westmoreland escaped first to Scotland and finally to Flanders, where he lived in poverty and seclusion, supported by a small pension from the king of Spain, until his death in 1601. He left three daughters, who with their mother under- went terrible privations. In 1596, the Bishop of Durham touchingly relates the hardships of one, in a letter to Lord Burghley in her behalf, in which he says, It were very hon 1863.] 51 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. ourable for your good lordship to take the case of a most dis- tressed mayden, descended as your lordship knoweth of great nobility, the house of Norfolk, the House of Westmoreland, and the House of Rutland, iu memory of man, and was but a child of five years old when her unfortunate father did enter into rebellion. Brancepeth and Raby are now the residences of strangers. Charles I. granted the earidom of Westmore- land to the Panes. But a branch of the Nevilles still survives. Edward Neville, fourth son of Ralph, first Earl of Westmore- land, married the heiress of Beauchamp, and brought the ancient barony of Abergavenny into the family. This title was raised to an earldom in 1784, and from them have sprung also the Nevilles of Audley End, Lords Braybrooke. The De Veres, Earls of Oxford, as we learn from Macaulay, derived their title through an uninterrupted male descent from a time when the families of Howard and Seymour were still obscure, when the Nevilles and Percys enjoyed only a provincial celebrity, and when even the great name of Plantagenet had not yet been heard in England. One chief of the house of De Were had held high com- mand at Hastin s; another had marched, with Godfrey and Tancred, over heaps of slaughtered Moslems, to the sepulchre of Christ. The first Earl of Oxford had been minister of Henry Beauclere. The third Earl had been conspicuous amon~ the lords who extorted the Great Charter from John. The seventh Earl had fought bravely at Cressy and Poictiers. The thirteenth Earl had, through many vicissitudes of fortune, been the chief of the party of the Red Rose, and had led the van on the decisive day of Bosworth. The seventeenth Earl had shone at the court of Elizabeth, and had won for himself an honorable place among the early masters of En~lish poetry. The nineteenth Earl had fallen in arms for the Protestant religion and for the liberties of Europe, under the walls of Maestricht. The fortunes of this family have been the theme of another eloquent passage. It was in the Oxford Peerage Case, which arose in 1626, on the death of the eighteenth Earl, that Lord Chief Justice Crewe delivered his famous judgment. This great honor, said he, this high and noble dignity bath con- tinued ever since [its first creation] in the remarkable name of De Vere, by so many ages, descents, and generations, as no other kingdom can produce such a peer in one and the self-same name and title. I find 52 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, in all this time but two attainders of this noble family, and those in stormy and tempestuous times, when the government was unsettled, and the kingdom in competition. I have labored to make a covenant with myseig that affection may not press upon judgment; for I suppose there is no man that hath any apprehension of gentry or nobleness, but his affection stands to the con- tinuance of so noble a name and house; and would take hold of a twig or a twine thread to uphold it. And yet Time hath his revolutions; there must be a period and end to all things temporal, finis rerum, an end of names and dignities and whatsoever is terrene; and why not of De Vere ? for where is Bohun? Where is Mowbray? Where is Mortimer? Nay, which is more and most of all, where is Plantage- net? They are entombed in the urns and sepulchres of mortality. And IDe Were has joined them. Aubrey, twentieth Earl, died in 1702, and with him expired, after an existence of five hundred and forty-seven years, the oldest title in Europe. His daughter and heiress married Charles Beauclerk, Duke of St. Albans. In 1711 Queen Anne conferred the title of Earl of Oxford upon Robert Harley, the celebrated statesman. This peerage, too, expired in 1S5~3. Inferior, says Macaulay, in antiquity and splendor to the house of Do Were, but to the house of De Were alone, was the house of Talbot. Ever since the reign of Edward III., the Talbots had sat among the peers of the realm. The earldom of Shrewsbury had been bestowed in the fifteenth century on John Talbot, the nntagonist of the Maid of Orleans. He had been long remembered by his coun- trymen as one of the most illustrious of those warriors who had striven to erect a great English empire on the Continent of Europe. The stub- born courage which he bad shown in the midst of disasters had made him an object of interest greater than more fortunate captains had in- spired, and his death had furnished a singularly touchin~, scene to our early stage. His posterity had, during two centuries, flourished in great honor. The head of the family at the time of the Restoration was Francis, the eleventh Earl, a Roman Catholic. His death had been attended by circumstances such as, even in those licentious times which immediately followed the downfall of the Puritan tyrnnny, had moved men to horror and pity. The Duke of Buckiugham, in the course of his vngrant amours, was for a moment attracted by the Countess of Shrewsbury. She was easily won. Her lord challenged the gallant, and fell. Some said the abandoned woman witnessed the combat in mans attire, and others that she clasped her victorious lover to her bosom while his shirt was still dripping with the blood of her husband. 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. Charles, the twelfth Earl, and afterward Duke of Shrewsbury, the son of the above, the celebrated statesman of the reigns of William liii. and Anne, is perhaps the most distinguished mem- ber of this house. His abilities and accomplishments were of the highest order, but rendered, except on two great occasions, almost useless to his country, by his hesitating and uncertain temper. From the s~veetness of his dispositioii and the fasci- nation of his manners, he early obtained the title of King of Hearts, which he retained to the last. Since his death the family has been almost uninterruptedly Roman Catholic, and consequently has seldom taken part in public life. From a Protestant branch sprang Lord Chancellor Talbot, whose de- scendant, Earl Talbot, was declared in 1858, after a long hear- ing, to be entitled to the earldom of Shrewsbury, dormaiit since the death of the seventeenth Earl, two years previously. There is one circumstance of singular and melancholy interest connected with the Talbots. From the tragical death of the eleventh Earl, in 1667, to the present time, the Shrewsbury peerage has never Once descended lineally, either to son or grandson, and Earl Talbot traced his connection with it no later than the time of the Wars of the Roses. Very different has been the fortune of the Scotch Grahams, Marquesses and Dukes of Montrose. For seven hundred years, Sir Bernard Burke tells us, there has never been a collateral succession, since the Grahams first branched off from the family of Dalkeith and Abercorn. On two occasions the grandson succeeded his grandfather, but there is no instance of the di- rect line being broken. The intermarriages which continued this long line have invariably been with noble families. As far as they can be ascertained for four hundred years, the wives have always been daugh- ters of actual peers. Not one of the successive heads of the house of Montrose has married an heiress, except on one occasion, when a Mar- quess of Montrose married the younger daughter of the only Duke of Rothes; but as that lady did not share her fathers inheritance, she did not, according to the rule in Scotland, bring arms. Thus the Montrose fomily, one of the noblest in the three kingdoms, has no quarterings, while other families of much shorter duration have quarterings by the hundred. * * We may here mention a rule of heraldry, about which there would seem to he an enormous amount of ignorance; namely, that a person has no right to quarter or 5* 54 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, A branch of the Grahams, then called Gr~mes, early left Scotland and settled at Esk and Netherby in Cumberland, where, and in Yorkshire and Northumberland, many families of them are still found. They soon distinguished themselves in the constant warfare carried on along the Border, and spread terror far into the interior of Scotland. Nor were they by any means docile subjects to their new sovereigns, but fre- quently were perfectly impartial between English and Scotch in their depredations. So troublesome indeed were these rest- less borderers, that upon one occasion intelligence was sent to Westminster, as of great importance, that the Grwmes are quiet! From them came some brave Cavaliers in the civil war; also Richard Graham, Viscount Preston, a minister of James II., and the late Sir James Graham of Netherby Hall, one of the ablest men of the day. We have already mentioned the ancient and illustrious house of Courtenay, as Lord Macaulay terms it, as one of the two oldest in the House of Lords. The earldom of Devon was conferred upon the Courtenay~ in 1885 by Edward III., but it was forfeited in two or three generations. Henry VIII. created the chief of the house in his day Earl of Devon and Marquess of Exeter; but he too was subsequently at- tainted and beheaded, and his son, Edward Courtenay, was shut up in the Toxver from boyhood to manhood. He was liberated by Mary, who conferred upon him a third earldom of Devon, and subsequently made him Marquess of Exeter. It is also said that her Majesty designed to bestow her hand upou him, but he unfortunately showed a preference for her sister, the Princess Elizabeth, and was accordingly sent back to prison. He afterwards died unmarried, and his titles, having, as it was supposed, become extinct, lay dormant for more than two hun- dred and fifty years. The late Sir Harris Nicolas, in the course of other investigations, discovered that in the patent of this earldom of Devon the limiting words heirs male of his body had been omitted, so that the honor was granted to the use in any way the arms of a female ancestor, unlcss she was an heiress; that is, had no hrother, or no hrother leaving issue. In Scotland, the rule is even more restricted. A man has the right to impale his wifes arms, and, if she he an heiress, to wear them on an escutcheon of pretence. 55 18G~L] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. heirs male generally of the first peer. This omission was doubtless accidental, as so unusual a grant in the English peerage would otherwise have been remembered. Sir Harris Nicolas advised the Courtenays of Powderham Castle, de- scended from a cousin of the first Earl, to lay claim to the peerage, and the House of Lords adjudged it to them in 18~1. The Earl of Devon now ranks third among the earls, and were it not for his ancestors attainder, he would take precedence of all. The Courtenays claim a direct male descent from Charlemagne. The most romantic recovery of a peerage was that of the ancient earldom of Hnntingdon, by the world-renowned family of Hastings. The title, it was supposed, became extinct in 1789, on the death of the seventh Earl, and the estates went to that noblemans nephew, the celebrated Earl of Moira, who assumed his name, and was created Marquess of Hastings in 181G. In 1817 a Captain Hans Hastings was residing at a little town in Ireland, as ordnance storekeeper, where he be- came very intimate with an attorney named Bell. This gen- tleman was convinced, from some family reminiscences that fell from his friends mouth, that he was the rightful male heir of his house. With some difficulty he persuaded Captain Hastings to allow him to investigate the matter, the latter writing on the back of the letter in which he gave his consent, By all that is good, you are mad. Accident threw Mr. Bell, while travelling in England, into the company of an old ser- vant of the Hastingses, and from things wormed out of her he discovered the right clew, and was enabled in a few months to lay a case before Sir Samuel Romilly. That distinguished lawyer took great interest in the matter, gratuitously gave it his close attention, and, after the production of some new evi- dence suggested by him, declared the claim complete. An application was then made for a writ of summons, and referred by the Prince Regent to the Attorney-General, who unhesitat- ingly recommended that it be issued, and in less than two years from his first acquaintance with Mr. Bell, Captain Hastings took his seat in the House of Lords as Earl of Huntingdon. We have spoken of the unlimited manner in which Scotch peerages were granted. Two remarkable instances are those 56 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, of Argyll and Breadalbane, enjoyed by the Camphells of Loch- ow and the Campbells of Glenorchy. As long as Campbells exist who can trace the remotest connection with these, so long will the peerages exist. Johu Campbell, second Mar- quess of ]3readalbane, died last autumn, without issue; the marqnessate became extinct, and the earldom and estates, worth 40,000 a year, fell to Mr. Campbell of Glenfalloch, a very distant relative, and a young barrister in London, we believe. About this family, Sir Bernard Burke, in the third series of The Vicissitudes of Families, tells a story so singular, and yet so authentic, that we think it well worth repeating. John, third Earl of Breadalbane, in the last century, was childless. The next heirs were Mr. Campbell of Carwhin, a writer to the signet and a bachelor, and Campbell of Glen- falloch, an old Highland laird. With the latter lived his grandson, of whom he was very fond, and whom he regarded with much pride as the future head of the house, presuming upon the extinction of the lives of the Earl and of Carwhin. In 1758 an English visitor at Taymouth Castle met a fine- looking lad in the Highland garb, and, asking who he was, was told, The young Breadalbane. He subsequently after dinner told the story to his host, and asked who the boy could be. 0, replied Lord Breadalbane, I know who that would be, that was the young Glenfalloch; adding, So he called him the young Breadalbane, did he? which remark he con- stantly repeated to himself during the evening. Next morning at break of day, as Sir Bernard tells the story, a messenger was sent express to summon Campbell of Carwhin, the retired man of business from Edinburgh, who, as an old bachelor, had lately settled in his own little place to end his days in peace. When he arrived, and was welcomed, Lord B. said to him, Now, Carwhin, you cant guess why I sent for you. Oo! onything to pleasure your lordship. Well, I 11 tell you what it is. I want yon to marry. Me marry! Breadalbane, I hac naething to marry on. 0, I 11 make that easy for you, Carwhin. Weel, but if I ever so weel inclined, I dinna ken ony body that wud tak me. Well, Cnrwhin, I ye a remedy for that too. You 11 go to Inverary, where the Circuit Court meets soon; get introduced to Miss ,the daughter of Lord , one of the jud0es who is to be there. I 11 warrant she 11 take you. Weel, 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 57 Breadalbane, onything to pleasure your lordship. Off he set in his best, got introduced to the young beauty, danced with her, took her to supper, and proposed. He was, however, refused, and, much discon- certed, he applied to a bosom friend, and explained the case. His friend said, If all you want is to pleasure Breadalbane, try Betty Stonefield, I se warrant she 11 no refuse you. This was a maiden sister of Lord Stonefleld, the other judge on the Circuit, who was a Campbell, but neitber young nor handsome. Carwhin took the advice, went through the same form, and was accepted; and the son and heir of this curiously planned marriage was no other than John Campbell of Carwhin, who succeeded eventually, to the exclusion of young Glen- falloch, as fourth Earl of Breadalbane. But events are not to be con- trolled: this fourth Earls only son, John, fifth Earl and second Mar- quess of Breadalbane, has just died childless, and youn~ Glenfallochs great-grandson is, after all, despite the jealousy of the old Earl and the cannie courtship of Carwhin, now Earl of Breadalbane. The house of Stanley is Saxon. It is descended from a younger branch of the Audeleys, and derived the name of Stanley from the manor of Stanley in Staffordshire. Sir John Stanley, K. G., Lord Deputy of Ireland, in 1381 married the heiress of Latham, and thus became possessed of Knowesley, near Liverpool, the seat of his descendants ever since. He also received from the king of England the kingdom of the Isle of Man as a fief; which remained for three centuries in the family. The first Earl of Derby, who received that honor from Richard III. in 1483, was brought up a Lancastrian, but, marrying a Neville, became connected with the Yorkists. He conducted himself with great circumspection, however, so much so that he came out of the civil wars richer than before, and saved his estates and honors. At one time he appeared at the court of Edward IV. with both Hoses en- twined in his helmet. His successors showed equal caution, and this ancient earldom, with the accompanying estates, has never been forfeited. The second Earl was the Stanley of Fiodden Field, and the seventh a brave Cavalier, who ended his life upon the scaffold. His Countess, a Huguenot lady, dis- tinguished herself by her gallant defence of Latham House, against the Puritan forces. She figures as one of the lead- ing characters of Peveril of the Peak, where Sir Walter Scott sees fit to make her a Roman Catholic. Edward Geoffry 58 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, Stanley, the fourteenth and present Earl, and the chivalrous leader of the Conservative party, very early showed such aptitude for Parliamentary life as to cause Macaulay to pay him the remarkable compliment of saying, that, with the exception of Mr. Stanley, whose knowledge of the science of Parliamentary defence resembles an instinct, it would be diffi- cult to name a single eminent debater who has not made him- self master of his art at the expense of his audience. When Lord Derby was Prime Minister in 1858, his son, Lord Stan- ley, a young man of high ability, was one of the Secretaries of State, a thing that has no parallel since the time of Lord Burghley and his son Robert Cecil in the reign of Eliza- beth. Lord Derby, and Lord Palmerston, the leader of the Liberal party, are both descended from Saxon families not wanting in historic names; both are beyond all question the most distinguished ornaments of those families; and both represent younger lines, the heads of the families being baronets, Sir William Stanley and Sir Grenville Temple. The two great historical families of Ireland are the Fitz- Geralds, or Geraldines, Dukes of Leinster, and the Butlers, Marquesses of Ormond. The Fitz-Geralds went to Ireland with Stroughow, and divided into two branches, represented by the Earls of Kildare and Desmond. The latter title has long remained dormant, although genealogists think there are heirs still existing. The Earls of Kildare received that title in 1316. For a long time they were the most powerful barons in Ireland, and the office of Lord Deputy seemed almost hereditary with them. Then they were rivalled, and at length eclipsed, by their enemies, the Butlers. Since the Revolution, the Fitz-Geralds have recovered the first place among the Irish nobility, and the twentieth Earl of Kildare was made Duke of Leinster. The Marquess of Kildare, son of the present Duke, has recently published the History of the Earls of Kildare and their Family from 1157 to 1772, in which much light is thrown upon the condition and the so- ciety of Ireland during that long, dark, and turbulent period. The apes which constitute the crest and supporters of the Leinster arms originated, according to the family legend, in the infant heir of the house having been taken out of his 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 59 cradle and carried to the topmost battlements of the castle by an ape, that held him there for some time, to the great consternation and horror of the family and friends, but at length brought him down in safety. The Marquess of Kil- dare tells us that Dean Swift, when he wrote Gulliver s Travels, had quarrelled with the Earl of Kildare of that day, and in order to vex him introduced the account of Gulliver s being carried off by the Brobdignagian ape. The Butlers descend from Robert Fitz-Walter, a scion of one of the most powerful Norman families, who was made Heredifary Chief Butler of Ireland in 117T. His descendants were created Earls of Ormond in 1328. This family attained its highest power in the person of the great James Butler, twelfth Earl and first Duke of Ormond, the most illustrious of the Cavaliers of the civil war, and for a quarter of a century Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He and his son, the Earl of Ossory, wore the Garter at the same time. He was also Chan- cellor of the University of Oxford, and the party which in his days obtained the name of Tory regarded him as its bead and leader; for his sure judgment, intrepid courage, high integrity, pure character, and checkered fortunes elicited for him the respect and admiration of the bitterest Ronudheads. The Duke died in 1688, and was succeeded by his grandson, a prominent actor in the Revolution, but who on the death of Anne joined the Jacobites and fled the country. The dukedom subsequently became extinct, but the other honors passed to a cousin, whose descendant still resides in the old feudal mansion of Kilkenny Castle. From the Restoration to the death of Anne, the Dukes of Ormond were probably the most powerful noblemen in the United Kingdom. The family of Gorges a name forever identified with the early history of New England was for many generations of no small importance in the West. The name of Ralph de Gorges, the fo under, appears on the Roll of Battel Abbey, and he received grants of many a fine manor in Dorset, Wilts, and Somerset. In the fourteenth century, two of his descend- ants were successively summoned to Parliament, and took their seats as Baron Gorges, an honor now in abeyance. The heiress of the last Lord, Agnes de Gorges, married Sir 60 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, Theobald Russell of Kingston-Russell. Their eldest son as- sumed the name and arms of Gorges; the younger retained his paternal name, succeeded to the estate of Kingston-Russell, and was the ancestor of the powerful Bedford family. In the reign of Edward IV., Sir Edmund Gorges of Wraxall in Som- ersetshire was the ward of John Howard, first Duke of Nor- folk, and married that noblemans eldest daughter. Their oldest son continued the Wraxall line. The younger, Sir Edward, was ancestor of the family settled at Langford in Wiltshire, which received a baronetcy from James I., and, in 1620, the Irish barony of Gorges of iDundalk, honors that became extinct in 1712. Of this branch was Sir Arthur Gor- ges, the translator of Bacons Wisdom of the Ancients, and himself an author. It was on the death of his wife, a How- ard, that the poet Spenser wrote Daphnaida ; and in the dedication to the Marchioness of Northampton he says The occasion why I wrote the same was as well the great good fame which I heard of her deceassed, as the particular good will which I bear unto her husband Master Arthur Gorges, a lover of learning and vertue, whose house as your ladiship by marriage hath honoured,* so doe I find the name of them, by many notable records, to be of great antiquitie in this realme, and such as have ever borne themselves with honour- able reputation to the world, and unspotted loyaltie to their prince and countrey: besides, so lineally are they descended from the Howards as that the Lady Anne Howard, eldest daughter to John Duke of Norfolke, was wife to Sir Edmund, mother to Sir Edward, and grandmother to Sir William and Sir Thomas Gorges. Two great-grandsons, in the elder line, of Sir Edmund and Lady Anne Gorges, were Sir Edward Gorges of Wraxall, and his younger brother, the celebrated Sir Fer- dinando Gorges. The latter was a captain in the navy, and Governor of Plymouth. In early life he was implicated in the conspiracies of the Earl of Essex, and seems to have be- trayed them to Sir Walter Raleigh in a manner which, as related by Hume, was not very honorable; but it is not too much to suppose, from the subsequent high character of Sir Lady Northampton married, for her second husband, Sir Thomas Gorges, uncle of Sir Arthur. 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 61 Ferdinando, that, if all were known, his con duct upon this occasion would appear in a better light. He afterwards ap- pears in English history as refusing to fight, and even sailing back to England, when commanding a ship in the fleet ostensi- bly sent out to aid the Huguenots of France, but which it was intended should fight against them. But Sir Ferdinando is chiefly distinguished in connection with the settlement of New England, and his efforts to colonize Maine, of which he had a grant. Sir Edward Gorges had a large family, of whom the eldest, Sir Robert, married a daughter of Sir Marmaduke Dayrell, but died early, leaving no male issue, and the next son, Samuel, succeeded to the estates. During the civil wars, the family vindicated Spensers praise of their unspotted loyaltie. Sir Ferdinando Gorges, although then quite aged, distinguished himself on more than one occasion; and we suspect, had he been less devoted to his Church and his sover- eign, he would have stood higher in the favor of the Puritans of New England. Samuel Gorges was nominated as one of the Knights of the projected Order of the Royal Oak, and his estate is in that list valued at six hundred pounds a year. He had probably been greatly impoverished during the preceding troubles. In his son the male line of Wraxall ended, and that estate has, we believe, descended to Lord Poltimore. Dr. Palfrey intimates an opinion that there was a relationship between Raleigh and Gorges, through the Champernownes; but, after a close examination of the pedigrees of these fami- lies, we have failed to discover any. Hamilton Gorges, Esq., of Kilbrew, county of Meath, in Ireland, is believed to repre- sent the only male line remaining of this honorable house. We have met with persons of the name of George in New England who claimed descent from Sir Ferdinando Gorges; but there is pretty decisive evidence that none of the Gorges family ever settled in New England, while several of the name of George did, as will be seen by reference to Savages Gen- ealogical Dictionary. The name of Gorges seems to have been derived from gurges; and the arms of the family are Or, a whirlpool azure. It is impossible for us to trace the connection with history of many other families rivalling in antiquity and achievements VOL. xcvII.No. 200. 6 62 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, those which he have noticed. The Bohuns, Earls of Hereford; the Mortimers, Earls of March; the powerful Staffords, Dukes of Buckingham, immortalized by Shakespeare, and who fell victims to Wolseys anger and jealousy; and the Poles, Dukes of Suffolk, from whom sprang the last and best of the Roman Catholic Archbishops of Canterbury, the gentle Regi- nald Pole, would be particularly worthy of more attention than we can now give them. The latter family was founded by commerce, being descended from William Dc-la-Pole, whom Edward III., in a public document, termed my beloved merchant. He was, says the Quarterly Review, a grand merchant of Kingston-upon-Hull, who on one occasion had sent the king a thousand pounds in gold, and on another pro- vided sixty tuns of wine for the kings army, to be conveyed to Berwick-on-Tweed. Nor did the king repay him with mere empty honors; he paid him in hard cash, and gave him a good manor. He summoned his son, Michael De-la-Pole, to Parliament in 1366. Michael became Admiral of the kings fleet in the North, and in 1385 Earl of Suffolk. Henceforth their history is that of a family of the highest aristocracy. They fought at Agincourt; they suffered attainders, and rose again; they became Dukes of Suffolk, K. G.s, Lord Chan- chellors; married with Edward IY.s sister; and finally per- ished of too much greatness in the reign of Henry Viii. And all this greatness arose out of trade in a country town, and in an age when, according to popular notions, we might have expected trade to be obscure and despised. The Sack- villes, Earls and Dukes of Dorset, a race which has become extinct in our own time, and the families of Russell, Caven- dish, Herbert, Devereux, Cecil, Spencer, XTilliers, and many others, have all been connected with the history of England in a way that will prevent their memory from dying, whatever may become of honors and estates. A word may be added with regard to the connection of America with the peerage. The three most distinguished law peerages conferred in recent times are undoubtedly those borne by Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Brougham, and Lord Abinger. It is well known that Lord Lyndhurst is a native of Boston, but perhaps not so well known that Lord Abinger, formerly 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 63 Sir James Scarlett, probably the most brilliant man of the three, was a native of Jamaica. American peeresses are more numerous. We remember five from the United States. Three of these were daughters of Richard Caton, Esq., of Maryland, and married the Duke of Leeds, the Marquess Wellesley, and Lord Stafford. The wife of the first and mother of the pres- ent Lord Ashburton was the daughter of the Hon. William Bingham of Philadelphia; and the daughter of General John Cadwalader of that city married the second Lord Erskine, and was the mother of the present peer of that name. The same family frequently branches off into several peer- ages, and often different families bearing the same name are found on the roll of the House of Lords. There are eight peers who bear the family name of Stewart or Stuart; five each bearing those of Erskine and Howard; four each for those of Browne, Butler, Campbell, Douglas, Egerton, Hamilton, Plunket, and Scott; and three each for the names of Boyle, Cavendish, Hay, Herbert, Hill, Montagu, Russell, Stanhope, and Wellesley. Double names, very rarely, if ever, met with in the United States, have been growing more and more com- mon among the upper classes in England, where they were introduced from the Continent less than two centuries ago, and are generally borne as surnames by all the members of the family. Familiar instances are Ashley-Cooper, Seymour- Conway, Pelham-Clinton, Wentworth-Fitz-William, Hamilton- Douglas, Petty-Fitz-Maurice, and, last but not least, Bulwer- Lytton, a name so distinguished as to prove its bearers own adage, that Beneath the rule of men entirely great, The pen is mightier than the sword. Recent times have introduced Montagu-Douglas-Scott, Hag- gerston - Constable -Maxwell, Sutherland -Leveson- Gower, and the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos delights in the com- pound of Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville. Burkes Peerage and Baronetage is certainly the best for Americans to buy, as it gives in the smallest space the fullest account of the histories and pedigrees of all families now en- joying hereditary honors, while Lodges takes two volumes, and more expensive ones, for much less information respecting 64 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, the peers alone. The Historic Peerage, by the late Sir Harris Nicolas, confines itself to the history of the titles families, marriages, and issue being entirely omitted. It gives the most succinct account of all the peerages that have existed in England since the Conquest, so that the reader, by reference, can find out in a few moments who bore any title at any specific period. Take, for example, the Duke of Bucking- ham. In the last four centuries this favorite title has been borne by four historic families, Stafford, Villiers, Sheffield, and Grenville. A person reads of a Duke of Buckingham in the reign of Charles II., and, within twenty years, of a Duke of Buckingham in the time of Anne. A moments reference will show him that the first title was in the Villiers family, and became extinct in 1687, and that it was very shortly after granted to John Sheffield, Earl of Mulgrave, the poetaster. The value of a moderately sized and priced volume giving such information will at once be seen by all who have ever made the history of England a study, and indeed the Quar- terly Review does not hesitate to pronounce it as necessary a companion to the student of English history, as Johnsons Dictionary to the student of the English language.~~ The Vicissitudes of Families, by Sir Bernard Burke, of which we have made no sparing use, is the title of three small volumes of essays by that accomplished genealogist and an- tiquary, written in leisure moments, which cannot be very numerous with him, and consisting mostly of facts and an- ecdotes coming to his knowledge in the course of his profes- sional investigations. All of these are interesting, and some of them intensely so, rivalling the strangest tales of romance. Had we room, we could extract many heart-rending accounts of the decline and fall of honored names, and of peers and baronets in poverty and beggary. We cannot forego making the following quotation, as it concerns descendants of perhaps the ablest race of princes that has ever existed. What race in Europe surpassed in royal position, personal achieve- ment, and romantic adventure our own Plantagenets, equally wise as valiant, and no less renowned in the cabinet than in the field? But let us look back only so far as the year 1637, and we shall find the great-jeat-grandson of Margaret Plantagenet, herself the daughter 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 65 and heiress of George, Duke of Clarence, following the cobblers craft at Newport, a little town in Shropshire! Nor is this the only branch from the tree of royalty that has dwarfed and withered. If we were to closely investigate the fortunes of the many inheritors of the royal arms, it would soon be shown that, in sober truth, The aspiring blood of Lancaster Had sunk into the ground, ay, and deeply too. The princely stream flows through very humble veins. Among the lineal descendants of Edmund of Woodstock, Earl of Kent, sixth son of Edward I., king of England, entitled to quarter the royal arms, occur a butcher and a toll-gatherer, the first, a Mr. Joseph Smart of Hales Owen; the latter, a Mr. George Wilmot, keeper of the turnpike gate at Coopers Bank near Dudley. Then, again, among the descendants of Thomas Plantagenet, Duke of Gloucester, fifth son of Edward III., we discover Mr. Stephen Jones Penny, the late sexton of St. Georges, Hanover Square. The literary merit of these essays is unequal, and most of them bear evidences of haste. The best are in the first series, and those on the Percys, Nevilles, and Cromwells are superior to almost any other compositions of the kind we have ever read. Notwithstanding the vast amount of detail which Sir Bernard has to condense into brief, set phrases in his Peer- age~ and Landed Gentry, his style is singularly easy and agreeable, and well suited to this kind of writing, although occasionally approaching a little too near to that of the Court Journal and Morning Post. We earnestly advise all to read these agreeable volumes, being certain that the pleasure and instruction to be derived from them will fully repay for the necessary time and trouble. Sir Bernard Burke deserves well from all Americans, both because of the interest and partiality with which he regards this country, which is evi- denced in part by his chapter on the Pilgrim Fathers in this work, and because of the courtesy and willingness with which he responds to all applications for genealogical infor- mation. The Noble and Gentle Men of England, by Mr. Evelyn Philip Shirley, M. P., consists of brief notes made by a gentle- man of leisure upon the ancient families of England, titled and 6* 66 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, untitled, which fall within the rules laid down by him, and best stated in his own language. The following imperfect attempt to bring together a few notes relating to the ancient aristocracy of En~jand is confined, in the first place, to families now existing, and regularly established either as knightly or gentle houses before the commencement of the sixteenth century; secondly, no notice is taken of those families who may have assumed the names and arms of their ancestors in the female line, for the truth is, as it has been well observed, that, unless we take the male line as the general standard of genealogical rank, we shall find our- selves in a hopeless state of confusion; thirdly, illegitimate descent is of course excluded In those cases where the whole landed estate of the family has been dissipated, although the male line still remains, all notice is omitted, such families having no longer any claim to be classed in any county This list also, it must be remem- bered, does not profess to give an account of all those families whose descent may possibly be tifaced beyond the year 1500, but merely of those who were in the position of what we now call county families before that period. The enforcement of these rules, and a most severe and jealous sifting of all pedigrees, and rejection of those mod- ern accounts of family history which, by ascribing the most absurd pretensions of ancient lineage to families who bore no real claim to that distinction, have done much to bring gene- alogy itself into contempt, of course greatly reduce the number honored with a place in Mr. Shirleys little work. But we cannot agree with those reviewers who are astonished at the smallness of this select circle. It is quite as large as we should have expected, and Mr. Shirley gives only one head to every family, no matter how many may be its ramifications. All the branches of the ilowards, for example, appear under Howard of East Winch. The senior line is, as a rule, set down, although younger ones may have far outgrown it. The Marquess of Winchester appears under Powlett of ilinton St. George; Viscount Falkland, under Cary of Torr Ab- bey. Where, however, the younger line is seated on the old ancestral estate, it is preferred, so that the IDuke of Marl- borough figures as an offshoot of Spencer of Althorp, and Earl Ferrers under Shirley of Eatington. 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. On the Continent, where titles are less regarded than in England, and the term noble applies to all entitled to bear arms, all the families in this book would be considered as of very high nobility, and many of those not ennobled do hold chief places in history and genealogy. Such a one is the great Cornish house of Trelawney of Trelawney. Indeed, Cornwall is a famous county for old families, and the nature of their names is exemplified in the couplet, By Tre, Pol, and Pen You shall know the Cornish men, the truth of which is proved by Trelawney, Trevelian, and Tremayne, Polwhele and Pollexfen, Pendarvis and Pendennis. Sir John Trelawney, Bishop of Bristol, and one of the famous seven sent to the Tower by the worst of English kings, was of this family; and the following passage from Macaulay exhibits his influence in his native county. The people of Cornwall, a fierce, bold, and athletic race, among whom there was a stronger provincial feeling than in any other part of the realm, were greatly moved by the danger of Trelawney, whom they honored less as a ruler of the Church than as the hend of an honorable house, and the heir through twenty descents of ancestors who had been of great note before the Normans had set foot on Eng- lish ground. All over the county was sung a song, of which the bur- den is still remembered: And shall Trelawney die, and shall Trelawney die? Then thirty thousand Cornish boys will know the reason why. The miners, from their caverns, re-echoed the song with a variation: Then twenty thousand under ground will know the reason why. Mr. Marmion Ferrers, of Baddesley Clinton, in Warwick- shire, represents the only remaining line of what was per- haps, says Mr. Shirley, during the Middle Ages the most powerful Norman family in England, descended from Henry IDe Feriers, of the time of the Conquest, who held in chief two hundred and ten lordships in fourteen counties, besides the castle and borough of Tutbury in Staffordshire. Were it not that an attainder in the time of Henry III. blocks the way, Mr. Ferrers would be Earl of Derby, with a coronet 68 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, dating from 1138, older even than the renowned one of Ox- ford. Sir Alexander Malet, now in the diplomatic service, is the sole survivor of the families of those renowned twenty- five barons selected to enforce Magna Charta. But we can- not enter into farther details. Besides those we have men- tioned, the families of Acland, Bacon (Premier Baronets, but far more celebrated for giving England Lord Keeper Bacon and his illustrious son), Burdet, Carew, Dymoke (the hereditary champion), Fairfax, Fitzherbert, Harcourt, Harley, Howard of Corby and Howard of Greystock, Kingsco te, Mor- daunt, Musgrave, Popham, Rokeby ( a knightly race immor- talized by Scott), Scrope, Shirley of Eatington, Throckmor- ton, Vernon-Wentworth, and Wyndham, all commoners, can vie with the greatest in the land in antiquity, in historical associations, and in many cases in wealth. Wales is omitted from Mr. Shirleys book, we know not why, except it be that he was appalled at the thought of the far-famed Welsh gene- alogies, and this excludes Devereux and Hastings, not now landed proprietors in England. We do not know why Somer- set and Herbert are excluded by Mr. Shirley, and were a little surprised not to find in his collection some other fami- lies, such as Bertie and Cecil. There must of course be some accidental omissions. With each family is an engraving and description of its ancient arms; and the simplicity of almost all of these cannot fail to strike the reader. The hideous coats allowed in later times, and which crowd modern books of arms, are proof of the recent origin as well as of the bad taste of the grantees. In the civil wars of the seventeenth century, the Gentle- men of England bore by far the most prominent part. Hyde, Hopton, Langdale, Acland, Cromwell, Hampden, Vane, Eliot, Pym, St. John, and many others of the leaders on the royal and on the Parliamentary side came from the country squires. Cromwell was no brewer, as some have called him, but the cadet of a good Huntingdonshire family. His uncle and god- father, Sir Oliver Cromwell, was an active Cavalier, and to the last refused to acknowledge the government of the Pro- tector. It is a singular circumstance, that the mothers of Hampden and of Whalley the regicide were of the Cromwell family. 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 69 The extraordinary passion for genealogy which has raged during the last twenty years in the United States will be fully comprehended by one who turns over the pages of Mr. Whitmores valuable bibliographical work, entitled Hand- book of American Genealogy, * containing a catalogue, with critical notices, of the very numerous books which have been published on the subject in America. The larger portion of these are filled with a wilderness of closely printed names, through which it is tiresome to thread ones way, and which are of little interest outside of the family recorded. The United States has also produced the most stupendous work on genealogy ever compiled; for when we consider the ob- scurity of most of those whose names are included in it, their number, and the difficulty of obtaining information re- specting them, we do not hesitate so to designate Mr. Savages Genealogical Dictionary of the Early Settlers of New Eng- land. Even Collinss great Peerage and Burkes Landed Gentry must have been far less laborious undertakings. We have placed at the head of this article three or four of the most interesting New England family histories, and to these we can but briefly allude. The Memorials of Samuel Appleton, by the late Mr. Appleton Jewett, contains a full genealogical account of a family which has attained wealth and distinction in Massa- chusetts. Samuel Appleton emigrated from Great Walding- field in Suffolk to Ipswich in this Commonwealth, in 1635. A Heralds Visitation contains the pedigree of the Appletons of Waldingfield back to John Appulton, living there in 141% and that the family was early of consequence is proved by some of their monuments as contained in Weever. This is direct and satisfactory; it is only necessary to supply one link to complete it to the present time, and that is to iden- tify Samuel Appleton who emigrated to America with the Samuel Appleton mentioned in the pedigree. This is done with all reasonable certainty, and the family, though respect- able, was not of so much importance as to make it strange that a younger son should leave his native country in those * This beautiful book was published by subscription, and the impression limited to one hundred copies. 70 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, times. We do not see, therefore, were the Appletons still landed proprietors in England, but that they would be enti- tled to a page in Mr. Shirleys book. The Genealogy of Warren, by the late Dr. John C. War- ren, is more ambitious, and in typography and general prepa- ration the most splendid work of the kind ever prepared in this country. Dr. Warren gives an account of the way in which he was first led to investigate his pedigree, and the means he employed; and says, at the end of the Preface, that, after three or four years of inquiry and discussion on both sides of the Atlantic, a very fair and satisfactory genealogical table has been formed. The pedigree is traced from no less a person than the first Earl of Warren and Surrey, son-in-law of the Conqueror, through the Warrens of Poynton in Chesh- ire and the Warrens of Headboro in Devonshire, to John Warren, who came to this country very early. Newly compiled pedigrees should always be submitted to pretty strict tests, and for ourselves we are very sceptical with regard to all genealogies going back beyond Elizabeth, except when coupled with uninterrupted possession of estates or titles. The former Visitations of counties furnish good evidence where an unquestioned connection can be made with them, but here lie the chief difficulties; and of course, the more ancient the genealogy, the more numerous they are. If in early times a cadet of a gentle family removed from one county, and founded a family in another, some evidence can generally be discovered to prove the fact; and where there is none save the name, the identity of a man in Devonshire with the son of a Cheshire squire is open to grave question. When a person comes from the same county with a noble family of his name, it is insuffi- cient to connect him with it. Independently of illegitimate descents, in former times, when surnames were scarce, the ser- vants of a great house often became known by that of their master. A person named John Percy, therefore, if he comes from the neighborhood of Alnwick or Petworth, may have been descended from an Earl of Northumberland, or may have been descended from his footman. Long pedigrees are no modern invention. The Saxon pedigree of her present Majesty is lost in the maze of fable and mythology, and Leland traced the De Veres back to Noah! 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 71 We must be allowed to say, that the genealogy of Warren has not appeared to us by any means so fair and satisfactory~~ as it did to its distinguished compiler. We should express our views with much greater diffidence, had we not discovered that they agreed with those of so experienced a genealogist as Mr. Whitmore.* The book contains some valuable sketches of the Earls of Warren and Surrey, General Joseph Warren, and others bearing the name. The Account of the Temple Family, by Mr. Whitmore, is little more than a pedigree ; but it is one of a house which, says Macaulay in his essay upon Sir William Tem- ple, long after his death produced so many eminent men, and formed such distinguished alliances, that it exercised, in a regular and constitutional manner, aii influence in the state scarcely inferior to that which, in widely different times, and by widely different arts, the house of Neville attained in Eng- land, and that of Douglas in Scotland Within the space of fifty years, three First Lords of the Treasury, three Secre- taries of State, two Keepers of the Privy Seal, and four First Lords of the Admiralty were appointed from among the sons and grandsons of the Countess Temple. The resignation of Lord Grenville in 1807, with which the long rule of his branch of this family may be said to have terminated, brought into office and upon the stage another Temple, in the person of the great Minister who still rules England, who in vigor and capacity has rivalled IRichelieu, and in the length of his offi- cial services has surpassed Metternich, while he has made his influence to be felt and his name respected far beyond the confines of Europe, in countries where the most celebrated Continental ministers are entirely unknown. From the mar- riage of the heiress of Temple with Richard Grenville sprang the Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos, and among the de- scendants of this now famous family in the last two centuries have been Sir William Temple, Lord Cobham, and Lord Palm- erston, and in the female line, Earl Temple, George and Wil- liam Wyndham, Thomas Grenville, the second William Pitt, the late Lord Nugent, the present accomplished Earl Stan- Handbook of American Genealogy, pp. 102, 103. 72 PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. [July, hope, and we may add, upon this side of the Atlantic, Mr. Robert Charles Winthrop. Mr. Whitmore gives the celebrated pedigree from Leofric, Earl of Mercia, the husband of the Lady Godiva of Coventry, which is generally considered apocryphal, although Collins seems to place some confidence in it. Mr. Shirley evidently disbelieves it, as he does not include the family in his book. Mr. Whitmore says that Leofric was chiefly instrumental in raising Edward the Confessor to the throne, as well as his suc- cessor, King Harold II.; and adds, He died 31 August, 1027. Now Edward the Confessor did not ascend the throne until 1041, nor did Harold until 1066, a date not easily forgotten. This may be a fault of the printer, but we think the grim Earl will live longer in Mr. Tennysons poetry than he will in sober history. The very interesting work by Rev. Edmund H. Sears, entitled Pictures of the Olden Time, is composed of a series of sketches illustrating times and scenes in the history of the numerous Massachusetts family of Sears. We should proba- bly differ widely from Mr. Sears in opinion respecting some of the events he records, but there can be but one voice regard- ing the graceful manner in which he has executed his very happily conceived plan for commemorating his ancestors. The Searses descend from John Sayer, an alderman of the borough of Colehester, in the early part of the sixteenth century, and by a more shadowy pedigree are traced to a Kentish family in the fourteenth century. This part of the line is broken, and indeed closely resembles the pedigree given by Dr. Holmes, of the Saymores, in Elsie Venner. No connection save that of the name is shown. After Alderman Sayers time, the fam- ily formed alliances with the noble house of Bouchier, through a daughter of Sir Edmund Knyvett, and during a residence in Holland with the Van Egmonds. These are evidently their pride. Mr. Sears makes a not uncommon mistake in speak- ing of the daughter of Sir Edmund Knyvett as the Lady Anne. Richard Sayer came from Amsterdam to New Eng- land, arid settled in Chatham. The greater part of the chapter on the Pilgrim Fathers, in The Vicissitudes of Families, is filled with the adventures of the Sayers, and Sir Bernard Burke thus describes the house of Richard Sayer: 1863.] PEERAGES AND GENEALOGIES. 73 On Quivet Neck he built himself a house, one-story high, roofed with thatch, and fronting south with such precision as to serve as a sun- dial, and indicate the hour of noon. The fireplace was made of rough stone; the chimney, of hoards plastered inside with clay. Both the fire- place and the chimney-flue were of immense capacity; so that, after a rousing fire had been kindled of a winters evening, the family would occupy the spaces on each side of it, and look up through the chimney opening, and gaze at the stars. What visions of other days must have come over the old Pilgrim, as he sat there and heard the whistling winds and the roaring on the sea-beach, and saw through the chimney-flue the same planets that twinkled upon him on the Princen Graat of old Amsterdam! The Memorial of the Chauncys, by Mr. William Chaun- cey Fowler, gives an account of a family famous in New Eng- land religious history, and also distinguished in secular pur- suits. President Chauncy of Harvard College was the first settler of the name in New England, a man of honorahle family, liberal education, and superior ability. His descend- ants in the male line are not very numerous. The pedigree in Mr. Fowlers book commences with Chauncy de Chauncy, who came from France with the Conqueror. HoW far back this is really authentic we have not examined, hut the Chauncys were a very ancient house in Hertfordshire, and we doubt whether any other of the founders of Massachusetts could boast so high a lineage as could President Chauncy. A family descended in the female line from the first ancestor, and hear- ing the name, is still found among the Hertfordshire gentry. We have far exceeded our intended limits, and must omit fur- ther examination of the very numerous publications on geneal- ogy. Our desire has been to give our readers such information as will aid them in historical investigations, and to avoid any opinion as to the wisdom or justice of hereditary rank, or the utility of genealogical studies. We shall only say, that the subject of Peerages and Genealogies is too closely allied to history to be ignored, and that some knowledge of English noble families, and of the origin and nature of the English aristocracy, is essential to any thorough knowledge of Eng- lish history. VOL. XcvII.NO. 200. 7 74 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCHA5OLOGY [July, ART. III. 1. Historical Lectures on the Life of our Lord Jesus Christ, being the Hulsean Lectures for the Year 1859. By C. J. ELLICOTT, B. D. Boston: Gould and Lincoln. 1862. pp. 382. 2. The Life of our Lord upon the Earth; considered in its Historical, Chronological, and Geographical Relations. By SAMUEL J. ANPREWS. New York: Charles Scribner. 1863. pp. 624. THE life of Jesus on earth was in the highest sense a human one, and it is this fact that gives us the key to the Gospels as real historic records. 0, let us not forget,in all our investigations,that the history of the life of Christ is a history of redemption, that all the records which the Eternal Spirit of truth has vouchsafed to us hear this indelible impress, and are only properly to he seen and understood from this point of contemplation. It is the history of the Redeemer of our race that the Gospels present to us; the history, not of Jesus of Nazareth, hut of the Saviour of the world; the record, not of merely idealized per- fections, but of redemptive workings, My Father worketh hitherto, and I work; and he who would presume to trace out that blessed his- tory, without being influenced by this remembrance in all his thoughts and words, must be prepared to find himself adding one more unhon- ored name to the melancholy list of those who have presumed to treat of these mysteries, with the eclectic and critical spirit of the so-called biographer, the biographer (0 strangely inappropriate and unbecom- ing word!) of Him in whom dwelt the whole fulness of the Godhead. These brief citations the first from Andrews, the second from Ellicott indicate the widely different stand-points of their respective works, so nearly identical in title. The one, passin0 by all questions respecting the authorship and the in- spiration of the Gospels, assumes that they are genuine histor- ical documents, and statements of facts; and deals with them as such, with a view to portray in their just geographical and chronological relations the external aspects of the earthly life of Christ. The other, assuming not only the credibility of the Gospels as a history, but their plenary inspiration as well, and regarding the usual tone of mere historical writing upon the closing scenes of our Lords ministry as little short of

74 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCHA5OLOGY [July, ART. III. 1. Historical Lectures on the Life of our Lord Jesus Christ, being the Hulsean Lectures for the Year 1859. By C. J. ELLICOTT, B. D. Boston: Gould and Lincoln. 1862. pp. 382. 2. The Life of our Lord upon the Earth; considered in its Historical, Chronological, and Geographical Relations. By SAMUEL J. ANPREWS. New York: Charles Scribner. 1863. pp. 624. THE life of Jesus on earth was in the highest sense a human one, and it is this fact that gives us the key to the Gospels as real historic records. 0, let us not forget,in all our investigations,that the history of the life of Christ is a history of redemption, that all the records which the Eternal Spirit of truth has vouchsafed to us hear this indelible impress, and are only properly to he seen and understood from this point of contemplation. It is the history of the Redeemer of our race that the Gospels present to us; the history, not of Jesus of Nazareth, hut of the Saviour of the world; the record, not of merely idealized per- fections, but of redemptive workings, My Father worketh hitherto, and I work; and he who would presume to trace out that blessed his- tory, without being influenced by this remembrance in all his thoughts and words, must be prepared to find himself adding one more unhon- ored name to the melancholy list of those who have presumed to treat of these mysteries, with the eclectic and critical spirit of the so-called biographer, the biographer (0 strangely inappropriate and unbecom- ing word!) of Him in whom dwelt the whole fulness of the Godhead. These brief citations the first from Andrews, the second from Ellicott indicate the widely different stand-points of their respective works, so nearly identical in title. The one, passin0 by all questions respecting the authorship and the in- spiration of the Gospels, assumes that they are genuine histor- ical documents, and statements of facts; and deals with them as such, with a view to portray in their just geographical and chronological relations the external aspects of the earthly life of Christ. The other, assuming not only the credibility of the Gospels as a history, but their plenary inspiration as well, and regarding the usual tone of mere historical writing upon the closing scenes of our Lords ministry as little short of 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 75 profanity, attempts to set forth the outward connection of those incidents that inspired pens have been moved to record of the life of Gods Eternal Son. But while the stand-point of the one is the external history of the life of the Son of Man, and that of the other is the inspired record of the incarnate Son of God, both authors agree in this, the attempted reproduction of the life of Christ in its historical unity of time, place, manner, and rela- tions. Mr. Andrews, while recognizing the supernatural elements in the evangelic narratives wherever they exist, and believing as devoutly as does Bishop Ellicott that Jesus was very God, has written his book with this simple purpose in view to arrange the events of the Lords life, as given us by the Evangelists, so far as possible, in a chronological order, and to state the grounds of this order; and to consider the difficulties as to matters of fact which the several narratives, when compared together, present; or are supposed by modern criticism to present. Bishop Ellicott, while rejecting with pious indignation all naturalistic criticisms as discreditable and unreasonable attempts to throw doubt on the credibility of the sacred narrative, nevertheless in his notes which alone give value to his book for the scholar is at much pains to refute such idle and mischievous doubts, upon critical and historical grounds; and to exhibit the connection of events in the life of Christ, in a regular continuity of narrative, as if he himself were writing a biography of the man Christ Jesus, from the materials furnished by the four Evangelists. Using these authors mainly for illustration and confirmation upon minor details, we propose to invert their method with regard to the life of Christ, and to inquire what evidences of the reality of that life are to be found in the historical and geo- graphical allusions of the Evangelists, and in the arch~ology of Palestine as illustrated by traditions and remains, and by hereditary and immutable customs. A list of geographical names, or a genealogical register such as opens the Gospel of Matthew and the First Book of the Chronicles, has no attractions for the plain reader of the Bible. But these very minuti~ of names, places, and dates, in a book of such antiquity, form a local and historical foundation for 76 TIlE ChRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPhY, AND ARCILEOLOGY [July, its facts, help us to verify its statements, and serve to certify its authenticity; and thus the religion of the Bible is definitely and permanently attached to the soil and the history of our world. It has been common of late to criticise the Bible upon the score of accuracy in its details ; to admit in the main the truth of its principles and the beauty of its moral sentiments, but to impeach its statements of fact, whether scientific or historical, and thus to impair confidence in the book as an authority. Bishop Colenso, while professing to believe that the Pentateuch imparts to us revelations of the Divine will and character, yet maintains upon arithmetical grounds that the so-called Mosaic narrative cannot be regarded as historically true. Similar criticism has been applied to the life of Christ. But the minute references of the Bible to places, names, and the events of contemporaneous history, serve to fasten its narra- tives in space and in time; and thus are a means of estab- lishing its truth as a history, and the reality of the persons and the events of which it speaks. Hence the study of Bibli- cal geography and history bears a just relation to the super- natural events and the moral truths of the Bible ; for while this book in its miracles and doctrines is the most supernatu- ral work in human language, it is at the same time the most matter-of-fact book of all antiquity, and the most capable of being tested, illustrated, and confirmed by geography, history, and monuments. To show this, we have only to suppose that, instead of the Bible as it is, we had the general statement, that, at a time far back in the history of the world, there had appeared to men a remarkable Being, with a halo about his head, who said and did many wondrous things; that lie had once made a sea stand still in the midst of a storm; that he had created bread for a hungry multitude in the desert; that he had gone up to the top of a mountain, and had there been transfigured into a di- vinity; and that he had finally ascended from a mountain into the clouds ; and yet in all this story there was no hint of the place or the time of these occurrences, what sea, what mountain, what desert, what country, among what people, in what age ; we should have a feeling of the unreality of the whole story, however we might prize its moral lessons. It 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 71 would be shifted from the region of history to that of poetry. How differently would the truths of the Bible impress us, did they come in the garb of Miltons Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained! Those two poems work up into the form of an epic the great events and sequences of the fall and the redemp- tion of man ; they aim to reproduce the supernatural features of the Bible ; they embody its precepts, prophecies, and doc- trines ; in a word, they are Biblical throughout. But though composed in a narrative form, and teaching the very facts of the Bible, they are so imaginative in their cast, that, if they constituted our Bible, we should be puzzled to know how much of reality, and especially of Divine authority, to attach to them. Though Miltons poems abound in geographical and historical allusions, which localize the scenes of their principal events, yet their fictitious incidents and imaginary conversations, and the drapery of fancy in which they are clothed, give an air of unreality even to scenes borrowed from Biblical narratives. But if we go further, and suppose all local and historical groundwork to be removed from the Bible, its personages, its events, its teachings, would float before us in the dream-light of poetic fiction. We might accept it as teaching truth, or as founded upon truth, but we should not feel it to be the real, personal, living book it is. As to the effect of reality upon the nilud, it would be more like Homers Odyssey than like Mil- tons Paradise Lost. The Odyssey abounds in beautiful and noble sentiments, and ends in the triumph of fidelity and virtue. It gives play to supernatural and divine agency in human affairs. It pictures the human race as it stood midway between Paradise and the vices of later heathenism. Many of its scenes are so far reproductions of real life, that it serves as a text-book of the manners and customs of its age. Even its legends may have had some original basis of fact. Yet, when we come to questions of time and place, we find that the geographical particulars of the wanderings are dislocated and distorted. Distances are misstated, or cease to be stated at all. The names of countries are massed together in such a way as to show that the poet had no idea of a particular mode of juxtaposition for them. Topographical or local features, of a character such as to identify a description with some partic- 7* 78 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPhY, AND ARCThEOLOGY [July, ular place or region as its prototype in nature, are errone- ously transposed to some situation which, from general indica- tions, we can see must be upon a different and perhaps distant part of the surface of the globe. At certain distances, the mode of geographical handling becomes faint, mistrustful, and indistinct ; * and thus the poem itself is thrown back from the world of reality into the shadowy ideal world. We can never assure ourselves whether there really was a Ulysses ; or, if there was such a person, where he travelled, and where he found his home. His story does not impress us with the sense of reality which we have in reading the story of Abra- ham, of Joseph, or of Moses, though these date from a more remote antiquity. In respect to their demonstrable reality as historic representations, the Homeric poems are like a broad lake outstretched in the distance, which provides us with a mirror of one particular age and people, alike full and marvel- lous, but which is entirely dissociated by an interval of many generations from any other records, except such as are of the most partial and fragmentary kind. The Holy Scriptures are like a thin stream, beginning from the very fountain-head of our race, and gradually but continuously finding their way through an extended solitude, into times otherxvise known, and into the general current of the fortunes of mankind. ~ This identification of Biblical narratives with geographical localities and with historical events with known places in the world and known actualities in history makes the Bible for every age a real and living book, belonging to mankind, capable of being verified by unimpeachable testimony, its matters of fact written upon the physical features of Egypt, of the desert, of Palestine, and corroborated by the records and monnments of the Jews, the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, and the IRomans. Its story of Shishak is illus- trated by the hieroglyphics on the southwest xvall of the main temple of Karnak; the stories of Nebuchadnezzar and Darius, by the cuneiform inscriptions of Bir and Behistun. The his- torical allusions of the New Testament tally with the contem * Gladstone, Homer and the homeric Age, Vol. III. p. 253 I Ibid., Vol. II. p. 521. 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 79 poraneous fragments of classic history, with the names and titles of Roman officials and the very coins of Roman colonies. Thus minutely is the Bible linked with matters of fact in the world to which it brings, professedly, a revelation from heaven. In this view, the study of Biblical history and geography has been introduced iiito some of our colleges, as a necessary part of a liberal education. In pursuing this line of inquiry, chiefly with respect to th~ geographical attestations of the life of Christ, we shall adhere for the most part to the narrative of Luke, whose references to the contemporaneous political history and geography of Syria are more full and more specific than those of the other Evangelists. Indeed, the preface to Lukes Gospel seems to invite this scrutiny, Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to set forth in order a declaration of those things which are most surely believed among us it seemed good to me also, having had perfect understanding of all things from the very first, to write unto thee, in order, most excellent Theophilus, that thou mightest know the certainty of those things wherein thou hast been instructed. But at the very outset we are met with the vexed question of Cyrenius (Qui- rinus), whom Luke mentions as governor of Syria at the date of the taxing that summoned Joseph from Nazareth to Bethlehem. Neander almost concedes that Luke has fallen into an anachronism, perhaps by mistaking the assessment under ilerod for the census which occurred twelve years later. Nevertheless, he adds, Quirinus m~ty have been actually present at this assessment, not, indeed, as governor of the province, but as imperial commissioner; for Josephus expressly says that he held many other offices before he was governor of Syria, at the time of the second census. * Ac- cording to Ilase, Luke carries the mother to Bethlehem by means of a Roman census, which is not in accordance with the Roman method of taking the census, and which only by means of forced explanations can be freed from the suspicion of being a mistake for the census of Quirinus, ten years later. ~ But the researches of Zumpt have created a strong Leben Jesu, Cap. III. 16, note. t Life of Jesus, Clarkes transi., p. 42. 80 TIlE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCHAEOLOGY [July, presumption in favor of the literal accuracy of Lukes state- merit; and the artless combination of the Jewish mode of registration with the Roman decree of taxation is one of those nice correspondences which compel us to accept the fact as stated. Mr. Andrews meets the difficulties connected with this tax- ing fairly and thoroughly. He makes no attempt to explain ~iway the obvious meaning of Luke, nor to provide conjectural emendations of authentic history, but shows, from a candid comparison of all known data, that in various ways the difficulties connected with the taxing may be met, (though it cannot be said that they are all yet removed,) if we assume that Cyrenius was but once governor of Syria. But we have strong historical evidence that he twice filled this office. * We give this evidence in Mr. Andrewss own words, from his preliminary Chronological Essays: It is at this point that the researches of Zumpt have for us special importance. In his list of Syrian governors (ii. 149), extending from B. C. 30 to A. D. 66, we find the interval from 748 758 thus filled: P. Q. Yarus, 748 750, or 6 4 B. C. P. S. Qurinius (Cyrenius), 750753, or 41 B.C. M. Lollius, 753757, or lB. C. to 3 A. D. C. MI. Censorinus, 757 758, or 3 4 A. D. After Ceasorinus follows L. V. Saturninus, already mentioned, from 758 760, or 4 6 A. D., who is succeeded by P. 5. Qurinius for the second time. This second administration extends from 760765, or 6 11 P D. If Zumpt be right in this order, Cyrenius was twice governor of Syria; but we are now concerned only with his first administration ,or that from 750 753. Upon what gronnd does this statement rest? Our chief knowledge of Cyrenius is derived from Tacitus. lie was of low origin, a bold soldier, and attained a consulship under Augustus in 742, and was afterward proconsul in the province of Africa. After this he conquered the Homonadenses, a rude people living in Cilicia, and obtained a triumph. He was subsequently made rector to Caius Ca3sar when the latter was appointed governor of Armenia. At what time and in what capacity did he carry on the war against the Homo- nadenses? The time is thus determined. He was consul in 742. As it was a rule with Augustus to send no one sooner than five years after his consulship as legate to a province, he could not have been in Africa earlier than 747. But he was made rector to C. Cesar in 753, after Page 76. 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 81 the war against the Homonadenses, so that this war was between 747 and 753. In what capacity did he carry it on? Probably as gov- eraor of Syria. It is important to bear ia mind that at this time there were two classes of provinces, the one under the immediate control of the Emperor, the other under the control of the Senate. The gover- nors of the imperial provinces were called Legates, or PropraAors, and continued in office during the pleasure of the Emperor; those of the Senatorial provinces, Proconsuls, whose authority lasted only for one year. Syria and Cilicia were both provinces of the former kind, and administered by propra4ors. The 1-Jomonadenses were a people living in Cilicia, but Cilicia belonged, from 25 B. C. down to the time of ~Tespasian, to the province of Syria. As Cyreuius had been proconsul in Africa, and as it was a rule that the same person should not be ruler over more than one of the consular or pnetorian provinces under the care of the Senate, he could not have been governor of any of the provinces immediately adjacent, Asia, Pontus, Bithynia, Galatia; he must, then, have been acting as governor of the province of Syria, and as legate of the Emperor. We cannot here enter into an investigation of the many intricate questions which belong to this point, and which are fully discussed by Zumpt. The result of all is, that Cyrenius became governor of Syria, as the successor of Varus, toward the end of 750, and continued in office till 753. It cannot be said that Zumpt demonstrates that Cyrenius was twice governor of Syria, but he certainly makes it highly probable. It is indeed possible that he was acting in the East at the time of the Lords birth as legate extraordinary, or as head of the census com- mission for Syria and the East. As, however, Lukes language seems to mean that he did act as governor of Syria at this time, and as he is confirmed in this by many of the earliest Christian writers, the burden of proof lies upon those who dispute his accuracy. As the ease now stands, we may assume that Cyrenius was so governor from the end of 750 till 753.pp. 5,6. Bishop Ellicott, who also gives a summary of proofs and authorities in his notes, is still more confident in the result. I feel certain no fair and honest investigator can study the various political considerations connected with this difficult question, without ultimately coming to the conclusion, not only that the account of St. Luke is reconcilable with contemporary history, but that it is confirmed by it, in a manner most striking and most persuasive. When we re- member that the kingdom of Herod was not yet formally converted 82 TIlE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCHIEOLOGY [July, into a Roman province, and yet was so dependent upon the imperial city as to be practically amenable to all its provincial edicts, how very striking it is to find, in the first place, that a taxing took place at a time when such a ~eneral edict can be proved to have been in force; and, in the next place, to find that that taxing in Jndrca is incidentally described as having taken place according to the yet recognized cus- toms of the country, that it was, in fact, essentially imperial and Roman in origin, and yet Herodian and Jewish in form. How strictly, how minutely, consistent is it with actual historical relations, to find that Joseph, who under purely Roman law might, perkaps, have been enrolled at Nazaretb, is here described by the Evangelist as journeying to be enrolled at the town of his forefathers, because he was of the house and lincage of David! This accordance of the sacred nnrrative with the perplexed political relations of the intensely national, yet all but subject Jud~a, is so exact and so convincing, that we may cv cn pro- fess ourselves indebted to scepticism for having raised a question to which an answer may be given at once so fair, so explicit, and so con- clusive. pp. 67, 68. We are the more disposed to rely upon the accuracy of Luke in this instance, when we recall the remarkable corrob- oration by iDio Cassius of the much-disputed title, av06wa7o9, given by Luke * to Sergius Paulus, governor of Cyprus. It was alleged that, as Augustus had reserved Cyprus as an imperial province, it must have been governed by a legate, and that consequently Luke was in error in calling S ergius a proconsul, an officer of the Senate and the people. But after hypercriticism had satisfied itself of the inaccuracy of the chronicler of the Acts of the Apostles, a passage was dis- covered at length in Dio Cassius (53. 12) which states that Augustus subsequently relinquished Cyprus to the Senate in exchange for another province, and (54. 4) that it was governed henceforth by proconsuls, ~vO6wa7o. Coins, too, have been found, struck in the reign of Claudius, which confirm Lukes accuracy. Bishop Marsh mentions one on which this very title, ~vOraros, is applied to Cominius Proclus, a governor of Cyprus. t At a time when the government of Cyprus, like that of New Orleans, alternated between a military and a civil administration, Luke is careful to give the exact title Acts xiii. 7. t Prof. Hackett, Comm. in bc. 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 83 of the officer to whom he makes a mere passing allusion. We submit that the positive statements of an historian of such proved accuracy of detail cannot be impeached by the omis- sions of Josephus upon certain obscure passages of contempo- rary Itoman history. A test passage in Lukes Gospel, for both chronological and geographical accuracy, is the opening of his third chapter: Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius C~sar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judtea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Iturca and of the region of Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene, Aunas and Caiaphas being the high-priests, the word of God came unto John, the son of Zacharias, in the wilderness. Of the political geography of Syria, as indicated in this passage, we shall speak presently; we are now con- cerned with its chronological accuracy. The minor question whether the reign of Tiberius should date from his accession to the throne, or from his colleagueship with Augustus two years previous, is of no consequence to the correctness of the official grouping in Lukes text, though it is important for determining the dates of Christs birth, of his ministry, and of his death. Bishop Ellicott inclines to the view of Wieseler and Tischendorf, that the fifteenth year of Tiberius dates from his accession, and coincides, not with the first appearance, but the captivity, of John the Baptist. * Mr. Andrews prefers to date it from the colleagueship, since we cannot, without doing St. Luke great injustice as a historian, suppose him to have been ignorant of a fact so public and notorious as that of the association of Tiberius with Augustus in the empire; and there is no good reason why, if knowing it, he should not have taken it as an epoch from which to reckon, espe- cially as he then became the acting Emperor of the provinces of Asia Minor and Syria. To sum up our investigations upon this point, we find three solu- tions of the chronological difficulties which the statements of Luke pre- sent: 1st. That the fifteenth year of Tiberius is to be reckoned from the death of Augustus, and extends from August, 781, to Augu st, 782. Page 106, note 1. 84 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCH~OLOGY [July, In this year, the Baptist, whose labors began some time previous, was imprisoned, but the Lords ministry began in 780, before this imprison- ment, and when he was about thirty years of age. 2d. That the fif- teenth year is to be reckoned from the death of Augustus, but that the statement the Lord was about thirty years of age is to be taken in a large sense, and that he may have been of any age from thirty to thirty-five, when he began his labors. 3d. That the fifteenth year is to be reckoned from the year when Tiberius was associated with Au- gustus in the empire, and is therefore the year 779. In this case, the language he was about thirty may be strictly taken, and the statement, the word of God came unto John, may be referred to the beginning of his ministry. Of these solutions, the last seems to have most in its favor; and we shall assume that during the year 779, or the fifteenth year of Ti- berius, reckoned from his colleagueshi p with Augustus, John began to preach and baptize. pp. 28, 29. This question aside, we find in Josephus the fullest cor- roboration of the political subdivisions mentioned by Luke. Herod the Great, by a will which Augustus confirmed, divided his kingdom amoi~g three sons (excluding Philip I., the son of Mariamne), making Archelaus ethnarch of Jnd~ca, Idumea, and Samaria; Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Pcrea; ilerod Philip II., tetrarch of Batan~a, Trachonitis, Gaulo- nitis, and the region about Paneas. ilerod died in the first year of Christ; but when Joseph, returning from Egypt, heard that Archelaus, who inherited his fathers cruelty, did reign in Judwa in the room of his father Ilerod, he was afraid to go thither, but turned aside into the parts of Galilee, now under Herod Antipas, who would be less likely to concern himself about the rumored birth of a child-king of the Jews, at Bethlehem. The reign of Archelaus lasted but ten years; and after his deposition, JueLca and Samaria were united to the province of Syria, under Quirinus, but were governed by procurators, of whom Pontius Pilate was the sixth in order. Pilate sent Jesus to Herod Antipas, as soon as he heard that he was a Galilean, and belonged to ilerods jurisdiction. Both Antipas and Philip had long reigns covering the whole period of the life of Christ. But who was the Lysanias whom Luke mentions as con- temporary with Pilate, Antipater, and Philip? Josephus men- 1863.1 OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 85 tions a Lysanias, governor of Chalcis, who died abont 13. C. 34, but does not specify Abilene as a part of his possessions. But he also states that the Emperor (aligula (about A. ID. 38, ten years after the time mentioned by Luke) gave to ilerod Agrippa the tetrarchy of Lysanias, reserving to him- self the Abila of Lysanias, and whatever was on Mount Lebanon. Hence Robinson infers that there was another Lysanias, the son or grandson of the former, and it thus appears that the specifications of Josephns, referring to a period several years later than the notice of Luke, are in per- fect harmony with the latter. * There was no reason why Josephus should mention this second Lysanias, since during his lifetime his tetrarchy did not come into direct connection with Jewish history; but when, after his death, his posses- sions were added to the dominions of ILferod Agrippa, Josephus names them as the tetrarchy of Lysanias. On the other hand, as at the time of Lukes writing Abilene had been absorbed into a Jewish kingdom, it was important for him, in fixing the date of Johns ministry, to refer to the old title of the tetrarchy. We can now see clearly, says Mr. Andrews, the reason why Luke, writing after Abilene had been made a part of the Jewish king- dom should have mentioned the fact, having apparently so little con- nection with Gospel history, that at the time when the Bantist appeared this tetrarchy was under the rule of Lysanias. It was an allusion to a former well-known political division that had now ceased to exist, and was to his readers as distinct a mark of time as his mention of the tetrarchy of Antipas, or of Philip. This statement respecting Lysani s shows thus, when carefully examined, the accuracy of the Evan~elists information of the political history of his times, and should teach us to rely upon it even when unconfirmed by contemporaneous writers. p. 136. The accuracy of Lukes information, as shown in this in- stance, is as striking as if one now writiiig of the emancipa- tion movement in Missouri, by way of contrast should say, that, in the fourth year of President Pierces administration, Wilson Shannon being Governor of Kansas as a Federal Tern- * Researches, III. 483. VOL. XCVII.NO. 200. 8 86 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCH2EOLOGY [July, tory, Charles Robinson being Governor elect in the State administration as organized under the Topeka Constitution, and Colonel E. V. Sumner being commander of the United States forces in the Territory, General David II. Atchison of Missouri, formerly President of the United States Senate, and Colonel l3uford of Alabama, invaded Kansas with an armed force, in order to establish therein, by fraud and in- timidation, the slave system of Missouri. One who was upon the ground during those memorable days could pen such a sentence from personal recollection; but at a distance, the writer must consult authorities, to avoid confounding the ad- ministrations of Reeder, Shannon, Geary, and Denver. The minute accuracy of Luke is the more striking, because his allusions to the shifting political divisions and administrations of Syria are simply incidental to his main purpose. But these serve to fix the chronology of the life of Christ, and to identify it as belonging to the local history of Palestine at a known period of the Roman empire. Passing from the chronology to the chorography of the Gos- pels, we find in this the same natural, incidental, and always correct references to known matters of fact. The first consideration, says Lamartine, that presents itself to the astonished mind, when opening a map of the globe for the purpose of studying the geography of religions, is that the little strip of earth between the head of the Mediterranean and the shores of the Red Sea, a space almost entirely occupied by Mount Lebanon, the hills of Jud~ea, the mountains of Arabia, and the desert, should have been the site, the cradle, and the scene of the three greatest religions adopt- ed by mankind (India and China excepted), the Jewish religion, the Christian religion, and the Mahometan religion. One would think, on contemplating a map of the world, that this little zone of rocks and sand betweea two translucent seas, and beneath stars of bright serenity, alone reflected more of divinity than all the residue of the globe. * But more to our purpose than this rhapsody of the poet is the deliberate judgment of the greatest geographer of our age, Carl Ritter. In the Book of Joshua, which relates the conquest and distribution History of Turkey, I. 37. 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. of the land of Canaan, the geographical character is predominant. Its contents, therefore, in this respect, admit of being brought to the test of comparison with the ascertained condition of the country; and the result is, that its accuracy has been fully established in the minutest details, even when the examination has been pursued into the most un- important and trivial local relations. Its notices, not only of distinct regions, but of valleys, fountains, mountains, villa~ e s, have been con- firmed, often with surprising certaiuty and particularity. The entire political and religious life of the Hebrews was interwoven in the closest manner, like a piece of network, with the geography of the land, far more so than is true of the modern European nations; and hence the opportunity to verify the alleged or implied connection between places and events is the more perfect, and affords results the more satisfac- tory. Most decisive is the rebuke which infidelity has received from this new species of testimony ; it has been compelled to confess with shame that it has imposed on itself and on others by the unfounded doubts which it has raised against the truth of the Scriptures. The authenticity of the historical books of the Old Testament has been shown to be capable of vindication on a side hitherto too much over- looked; their fidelity in all matters within the sphere of geography places a new argument in the hands of the defenders of Revelation. * What is true of the Book of Joshua is equally true of the Evangelistic narratives of the New Testament. The progress of modern researches in Palestine has subjected the chorog- raphy of the Gospels to the severest scrutiny, which it has sustained in the minutest particulars. The land of Palestine is peculiarly fitted to test the accuracy of the Scriptures in their geographical and local allusions. The smallness and isolation of the territory enable us to take in its whole area at one view, to understand the relations of its various parts, and to study the exact details of locality. The empires of Darius, of Alexander, of Augustus, of Napoleon, bewilder us by the vastness of their extent and the variety of countries and races embraced in them. These, too, were continually shifting their limits. But the life of Christ was confined to a territory not larger than Vermont. We can place Palestine, as it were, under the stereoscope, and inspect it at our leisure. For beside being circumscribed within such narrow boun * Ritter, quoted by Prof. Hackett, Illustrations of Scripture, p. 224. 88 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCH~EOLOGY [July, daries, this country is isolated by strong physical features. South and east inhospitable deserts, to the west the sea, shut it off from other lands, while Lebanon on the north bounds it by an almost insurmountable wall, stretching from the sea to the eastern desert. Nowhere else on the surface of the globe are the two conditions for the development of a world-religion centrality and isolation so wonderfully combined as in this hill-country between the Mediterranean and the Jordan, the wilderness of Arabia Petr~a and the moun- tains of Northern Syria. The physical geography of Palestine is remarkably permanent. The clearing of forests, the neglect of agriculture, the gradual modifications of time, may have produced changes in the climate, in the aspect of the lulls, and in the size and volume of the streams. But the general face of the country is to-day just what it was in the time of Christ, the time of David, the time of Joshua; its great land- marks remain unchanged. The deep fissure of the Jordan is there, with the blue Lake of Genesareth above and the molten Sea of Death below; the rocky wilderness is there, upon either side of the river; the plain of Jericho, the moun- tainous ascent to Jerusalem, Zion, and the Mount of Olives, all marked by unaltered features ; the valley of Hinnom, the valley of Jehoshaphat, with the channel of the Kedron; Joppa still looks upon the great western sea; the plain of Sharon stretches northward to Carmel. The hill-country of Jud~a, the hills and plains of Samaria, the vale of Shechem, with Ebal and Gerizim upon either hand, the great plain of Gali- lee, the vale of Nazareth, Tabor and Gilboa, Hermon and Lebanon, every spot in nature that Jesus visited or looked upon is there unchanged. hence we have the materials for the minutest comparison of the narrative of the Evangelists with the region of Christs earthly life. If that narrative is found to contain serious inaccuracies, or is contradicted by the physical features of the country, then must our confidence in its authenticity be hopelessly shaken, and the Gospels pass at once from the category of historical productions into that of the legendary or the fictitious. The tone of extravagance in the reports of Du Chaillu with regard to the gorilla coun- try, and the contradictions in his own journal, though he 1863.] OF TilE LIFE OF CHRIST. 89 attributes these to the jumbling of two or three journals to- gether by his amanuensis, have led eminent men of science in England to doubt whether he has ever been in the region he professes to describe. He that is first in his own cause seemeth just; but his neighbor cometh and searcheth him. Now the Evangelists have been searched and sifted as to localities and matters of fact in Palestine, from the days of Jeromes Onornasticon to those of Robinsons Biblical Re- searches, and they have stood this test far more conclusively than Herodotus or Strabo, or any other writer of antiquity whose veracity and substantial accuracy are admitted by scholars. Upon this groundwork of fact their character as witnesses is established. This comparison of the Evangelists with the local and phys- ical record of Palestine i~ favored also by the frequent identi- fication of ancient names through those in common use. The language of Palestine being the Arabic, the cognate of the Hebrew, and the language of a religion the Mohammedan which accepts the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa- ments as a preliminary revelation, it is easy to trace the origin of many present names of places in Palestine to the geography of the time of Christ and his Apostles, and even as far back as the age of Joshua and the conquest of Canaan. The Book of Joshua has been aptly compared to the Domesday Book of William the Conqueror. This book, still preserved in the British Exchequer, exhibits the state of landed property in England, its tenure and value, the quantity of meadow, pasture, forest, and arabic land in each district, as reported by the kings commissioners shortly after the Norman con- quest. This chorographic survey has been the authority of title-deeds and boundary lines for later generations. It fixed the basis of military tenure and fealty to the crown, when the old Saxon estates were brokeii up, and Norman barons were transformed into English nobles. Coke, Blackstone, and all the best authorities in English law, recognize this great survey as a decisive record upon questions of ancient demesne. Just so the distribution of Canaan among the Israelites by Joshua was matter of permanent and decisive record concerning the inheritance of the tribes; and the more we become ac- 8* 90 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCHA9~OLOGY [July, quainted with the geography of Palestine through the discov- eries of modern travellers, the more clearly do we perceive the correctness of all the boundary lines of the tribes, not only as regards their directions and windings, but also as to the heights and valleys over which they passed. * Joshua himself gives us the old Canaanitish names of many of the cities of Pales- tine, though these fell into disuse after the Israelites had taken possession of the land. And in like manner we can trace in the present geographical nomenclature of Palestine the old land-roll and census prepared under the direction of Joshua the conqueror. A striking instance of this is found in the recent probable identification of a series of towns in the inheritance of Naph- tali, to wit, En-hazor, Iron, liiliigdal-cl, Ilorern, and Beth- anath (Joshua xix. 37, 38). Upon Carl Zimmermaun s new Earle von Galilda, constructed to illustrate the routes and researches of Dr. Ernst August Schulz, we find these several towns in their proper juxtaposition, in the valley that stretches in a northeasterly direction from Acre toward Lake Huleh En-hazor in the Am Ilazur, near El Mughar; Iron in YarJn, northwest of Giscala; Beth-anath in Ainata, farther to the north. Migdal-el, Keil would identify with lIIejdal, the Mag- dala of Matthews Gospel, on the western shore of the Lake of Genesareth ; but this is inadmissible. Horem is marked in most itineraries as unknown. iDr. William H. Thomson, for- merly of Syria, now of New York, while exploring this valley, was led to suspect that Migdal-el and Horem were but parts of one compound name; and in lJIcdI cl-KerCrn, which lies north- west of Am Hazur, the long-sought identification is found. The Septnagint reads these two as one name, Me7axaap4~. Thus Joshuas Domesday Book, confirmed by native tradition, corrects a false reading of King Jamess translators. The value of this native tradition in determining Biblical localities appears in the fact that the Greek and Roman names imposed upon Palestine have almost entirely disappeared, while the common people have kept alive, in a kindred dia- lect, the ancient Hebrew designations. Hence Robinson, who Keil, Commentary on Joshua, p. 51. 1863.] OF TIlE LIFE OF CHRIST. 91 attached but little value to ecclesiastical traditions, which may have originated either in credulity or in cupidity, gives to this native nomenclature a weight beyond any other form of testimony collateral to the Bible and Josephus. There is in Palestine another kind of tradition, with which the monasteries have had nothing to do ; and of which they have apparent- ly in every age known little or nothing. I mean, the preservation of the anctent names of places among the common people. This is a truly national and native tradition; not derived in any degree from the influ- ence of foreign convents or masters; bnt drawn in by the peasant with his mothers milk, nnd deeply seated in the genius of the Semitic languages. The Hebrew names of places continued current in their Arama~an form long after the times of the New Testament; and main- tained themselves in the mouths of the common people, in spite of the efforts made by Greeks and Romans to supplant them by others de- rived from their own tongues. After the Muhammedan conquest, when the Arannean language gradually gave place to the kindred Arabic, the proper names of places, which the Greeks could never bend to their orthography, found here a ready entrance; and have thus lived on upon the lipi of the Arabs, whether Christian or Muslim, townsmen or Bed- awin, even unto our own day, almost in the same form in which they have also been transmitted to us in the Hebrew Scriptures. * While the general topography of Palestine exhibits so many and so minute correspondences with the names and localities of the Old and New Testaments, the more prominent scenes in the life of Christ can be identified beyond a question. We may not be able to designate the Mount of the Beatitudes or that of the Transfiguration; the site of Capernaum may be uncertain ; geographers may not agree which of two ruined villages represents the Cana of Galilee; but Bethlehem and Bethany, Jericho and Jerusalem, the Mount of Olives and the Valley of the kedron, Sychar and Nazareth, and the Lake of Tiberias, are as definitely known as the stopping-places on the Hudson River Railroad. One feels as sure that the plain of Genesareth lay upon the lake of its name, as that Sing-Sing is on the Tappan Zee. One is as sure that the vale of Shecliem lies between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, as that the Northampton meadows stretch out between Mount ilolyoke and Mount Tom. Researches, I. 255. 92 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCILEOLOGY [July, Geographically, the life of Christ may be arranged in three sections, though these will not represent its Chronological order. The first section embraces the northern portion of Jud~7ea and Samaria; the second, the region of Galilee; the third, the country beyond Jordan, known under the general name of Perea. This very division identifies the period and the region in which Christ appeared. The original distribu- tion of Canaan by Joshua after the conquest was into twelve divisions, which took the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. But the Evangelists, though Jews, barely allude to these tribal divisions. The reference to Bethlehem as a city of Judah, and the description of Capernaum as upon the sea-coast, in the borders of Zabulon and Nephthalim, are the only men- tion in the Gospels of the original Jewish divisions of Pales- tine. Those divisions, though substantially retained under the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, were nearly obliterated after the Captivity, from which only remnants of Judah and Benjamin returned. But when Palestine was reduced to a IRoman province, a new political division of the country was made, to provide offices for favorites, and to facilitate the gov- ernment of a turbulent people. The Jewish historian, Jo- sephus, and the classical geographer, Pliny, give substantially the following divisions: Jud~a, which embraced the old tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, and Dan; Samaria, which took in Ephraim and parts of Issachar and Manasseh; Galilee, made up of Zebulun, Naphtali, Asher, and the northern possessions of Dan; Perea, on the east of Jordan, embracing IReuben and Gad; and the Decapolis, with its surrounding tetrarchies, em- bracing the half of Manasseh east of Jordan, and stretching northward to Anti-Lebanon and eastward to Damascus. Snch were the political divisions imposed upon the Jews by the Ro- mans, obliterating the ancient tribal divisions, which were the basis of their nationality. It was as if our State boundaries should be swallowed up in the military departments created by the general government. Now the geographical references in the Gospels correspond throughout with this state of facts. There followed him great multitudes of people. from Galilee, and from Decapolis, and from Jerusalem and Ju& ea, and from beyond Jordan. 1863.1 93 OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. Such is the general division. But just as the limits of our military departments and the names and functions of their commandants are continually changing, so these provinces and the titles of their rulers were frequently changed at the period to which we refer. Thus Jud~a was subdivided into districts, the southernmost of which was called Idnm~a; and this was sometimes reckoned as a distinct province. Further- more, around cities of the Decapolis there grew up petty king- doms, or tetr archies, such as Abilene and Trachonitis, which had governors of their own. This state of facts, which we have upon independent Jewish and Roman authorities, and which greatly complicated the political geography of Palestine by frequent and embarrassing changes, is also recognized in the incidental allusions of the Evangelists. A great multitude from Galilee followed him, and from Juda3a, and from Jerusa- lem, and from Idumwa, and from beyond Jordan; and they about rryre and Sidon, on the old PhcQnician coast, adjoining Galilee. (Mark iii. 7, 8.) In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius C~esar., Pontius Pilate being governor of Juda~a, and ilerod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Iturea and of the region of Trachonitis, aiid Ly- sanias the tetrarch of Abilene. (Luke iii. 1.) Luke has a certain methodical minuteness of time and place in his nar- rative, which we might expect from an educated physician. These references to a group of political provinces and their rulers, at a time when the boundaries of those provinces and the names and titles of their rulers were frequently changing, show at least the confidence of the historian in his own knowl- edge, and should predispose us to receive him as an authority in matters of fact. And since these passing allusions of Luke are confirmed by the more formal narrative of Josephus, and by fragmentary Roman history, their testimony to his accuracy is of the very highest order. There are similar allusions by Matthew and Mark, which corroborate each other through circumstantial diversities. Thus Matthew tells us that, after feeding the four thousand in the Decapolis, Jesus sent away the multitude, and took ship, and came into the coasts of liliagdala. (Matt. xv. 39.) Mark says, that straightway lie entered into a ship with his dis 94 THE CTIPL0N0L0GY~ TOP0GuAPIIY, AND ARCHA5~0L0GY [July, ciples, and came into the parts of Dalmanutha. Now, with one exception, all the cities of the Decapolis lay on the east of the lake and the Jordau; the site of Magdala is well identified through the Arab village Mejdel, on the southwestern shore of the lake; an& Dalmanutha was in the same rebion. Jesus must, therefore, have crossed the lake from Decapolis to the point where these two neighboring villages marked the shore. After this he goes again by ship to the other side of the lake, that is, to the eastern shore, where next we find him at Bethsaida, at the northeast corner of the lake, near the en- trance of the Jordan, and thence he journeys northward into the coasts, or, as Mark says, the towns of C~esarea Philippi. This name is another proof of both historical and geographical accuracy. Familiar as is the history, we must cite its principal facts in evidence upon this point. There was a Ca~sarea npon the coast of the Mediterranean, forty miles north of Joppa, founded by Herod the Great, and so named in honor of C~sar Augustus. This is often mentioned in the Book of Acts. There Philip labored; there Peter visited Cornelius; there Herod died; there Paul had his hearing before Felix, and again before Festus and Agrippa. This was the C~esarea of Palestine. But when Philip was tetrarch of Trachonitis, he enlarged and embellished one of its cities, Panium, as his capi- tal, changed its name to C~sarea, in honor of the Emperor, and then added his own name, C~sarea Philippi, to distinguish it from the older and more conspicuous city on the sea-coast. This C~sarea Philippi, nestling under the very shadow of Hermon, near the head-waters of Jordan, was the most north- ern point of our Lords journeyings. The minute accuracy of the historian in the use of this name is seen in the fact that, about thirty years previously, the city was known exclusively by the name of Panias, and that twenty years later its name was again changed to Neronias, in flattery of Nero; after which it was long known as C~sarea Paneas.f Thus the great library of Paris has changed its name from Royal to Imperial, and again to Royal, and then to Natibnal, and once more to Imperial, according to the political administration of the capi- Robinson, II. 397. t Josephus, Ant. XVIII. 2. 1, and XX. 9. 4. 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 95 tal; and the mention of either name suggests a corresponding epoch of the government. Accuracy in such details, when purely incidental to the main purpose of the writer, affords the strongest presumption possible of his trustworthiness as an historian. In the simple narratives of the journeys of Christ, when time is given, it accords well with the relative distances of places ; and towns and districts are always named in their proper relations to each other. From Nazareth to Cana is about twelve miles over the hills; from Cana the route to Capernaum is an almost continuous descent, a distance of some fifteen miles. The nobleman coming from Capernaum finds Jesus at Cana in the after part of the day, and beseeches him to come down and heal his son. Next morning, as he is hastening home, he meets his servants, who inform him that his son began to mend the previous afternoon. Taking into account the mode of Eastern travel, these dates correspond ex- actly with the distances. From Capernaum to Nain is barely twenty miles; accordingly we find Jesus one day at Caper- naum, and the day after at Nain (Luke vii. 11). In going northward from Jerusalem to Galilee, Jesus must needs go through Samaria; and in Galilee, within another jurisdiction, he would be comparatively safe from the rage of the Sanhie- drim. The populous district about Lake Tiberias,* the chief scene of his labors, had near it, upon the northwest, mountain- ous solitudes to which he could withdraw for seclusion and prayer. On the eastern shore of the lake, over against Gali- lee, lay Gergesa and the country of the Gadarenes. Here, too, as above noted, was the broad region known as Perca, traversing which southward beyond Jordan, to the ford at Jericho, our Lord would thence come to Bethany and Jerusa- lem. ]3ethany, nestling under the eastward slope of Olivet, just out of sight of the capital, was an easy and pleasant resort by night, after a day spent in the discussions of the temple. Thus may we trace step by step the earthly life of Jesus upon the soil of Palestine. It is written upon the hills and the valleys, upon the lake and the river, upon the desert places of ~ The Gospels make no mention of Til3erias, built several years after Christ. This omission is a confirmation. 96 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARCILEOLOGY [July, Jordan and Galilee, on the smiling fields of Shechem and the fair slopes of Olivet, as legibly and imperishably as if for each succeeding generation Jesus had there repeated his lowly, patient wanderings, his works of sublime beneficence. To doubt this is to doubt everything in human history. No amount of testimony could make more certain the reality of that earthly life; no geographical exploration, no surveyors measurements, though these might multiply points of corre- spondence and identity, could make more sure a life certified by so many points unchanged in name and locality, and whose distances and bearings so completely underlie the narrative. The very stones are witnesses for the story. Say what men will of the character and mission of Christ, of his work, his doctrine, his death, they must accept the fact of his life on earth, or burn up every record of the past, and sink the land of Palestine in the depths of the sea. The political vassalage of Palestine, the inertia of Oriental society, and the bigotry of race and of religion, have combined to keep the features of the country and the location of its prin- cipal places more nearly like what they were two thousand years ago, than are the physical features and historical sites of any other land, Egypt alone excepted. For centuries its Turk- ish masters have barred it against the encroachments of mod- ern civilization, and now the mutual jealousies of Christian powers keep it in a state of chronic supineness. Hence the verisimilitude of the Gospel narratives when read amid the every-day incidents of life in the Holy Land. Even the arch~- ology of Palestine is a thing of the present ; its antiquities are living realitiCs. And, so far as scenery, climate, places, man- ners, and customs are concerned, much of the Bible might be reproduced there to-day, as all of it must at some time have been written there. To a reader not versed in Italian, the poem of Dante may at first seem obscure and dry, from the multi- tude of its local and historical allusions. But when one has resolutely mastered these, they in turn place him en rapport with the mind of the poet, and the once tedious page becomes a living annal of its times. Michel Angelo had brought the pencil of the greatest artist of Italy to illuminate her greatest poet ; and the loss of his illustrations was a calamity to the 1863.1 OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 97, world of letters no less than to the world of art. But a mod- ern artist has revived this difficult task; and as you turn over the pages of Dantes Inferno illustrated by Gustave Dor6, you gain a realization of the poets meaning, so vivid and intense, that you seem to walk with him pensive and shuddering through the dismal caverns of hell, fascinated by the very horror that repels you. The pictured pages are themselves a poem ; they give a visible shape to the conceptions of the poet, and by their shadowy light you look into the mysterious depths of that great soul. Yet this is only imagination illus- trated by imagination. But in the land of Palestine, rocks, hills, rivers,valleys, lakes, fountains, trees, and flowers, we have a photographed copy of the life of Christ, fact illustrating fact, and making that life of august mysteries a reality of earth and time. Every allusion of Christ to objects in nature be- longs to Palestine, and must have been suggested and uttered there. We look to the geographer, the botanist, the naturalist, for minute and classified descriptions of the soil, climate, and products of a country, of its agriculture, its fauna, and its flora. But from the native orator or poet we expect passing allusions to such physical scenery, and such animal and vege- table life, as he is familiar with in his own surroundings ; and these allusions may serve to localize the speech or poem, as belonging to the Occident or the Orient, to the North or the South, to England or to Italy. Bryants Prairies could not have been written by an Englishman, nor Wordsworths de- scriptions of Rydal and Windermere by an American. The verifying a literary production by its topical allusions becomes obvious and natural when the country of its birth has promi- nent peculiarities of scenery, climate, or productions. Now Palestine combines in a remarkable manner the climates and productions of the temperate and the tropical zones, concen- trated within a small area. Of the valley of the Jordan, and the country of Genesareth, Josephus says One may call this place the ambition of nature, where it forces those plants that are naturally enemies to one another to agree together; it is a happy contention of the seasons, as if every one of them laid claim to this country ; the hardier trees, t hat require the VOL. XCvII.NO. 200. 9 98 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND ARChEOLOGY [July, coldest air, flourish there plentifully; there are palm-trees also, which grow best in hot air; while fig-trees and olives grow near them, which yet require an air that is more tem- perate. Much as the soil and productions of Palestine have deteriorated since the land has been troddeu under foot of strangers, and much as the climate itself has changed, from the clearing away of forests, there yet remains in the vegeta- ble and animal kingdoms of the Holy Land, and in the agri- cultural habits of its people, a striking confirmation of the allusions to soil and climate in the life of Christ. Did John the Baptist appear in the wilderness, living upon locusts and wild honey ? The uncultivated, uninhabited re- gion of Judea toward the Dead Sea, whose trees and rocks drip honey from the nests of wild bees, is there to certify to the story. The contemporary Pliny informs us, that the Parthians esteem the locust a choice food,* and that some tribes of the Ethiopians subsist on nothing but locusts, which are smoke-dried and salted as their provision for the year ; j- and a modern Jewish ilabbi, long resident in Palestine, men- tions that in 1837, when myriads of locusts covered the land, the Arabs roasted these insects and ate them with much relish. ~ The camel, as of old, is the beast of burden, and his hair is woven into a coarse cloth for garments such as the Baptist wore. The banks of the Jordan are lined with reeds shaken by the wind. The fox still has his hiding-places in the hill-country of Palestine, where the Son of Man was a homeless wanderer; serpents and vipers abound, to illustrate the comparison of the Pharisees to their venomous brood; the scorpion haunts ruins, and hides in the crevices of the walls, its terrible sting representing the fierceness of the enemy, over whom Jesus gave his disciples power. If an ass or a camel die by the roadside, wheresoever the carcass is, the eagles or vultures * are quickly gathered together. The ra- vens, true to their instinct, drive out their young from the nest to seek their food, having neither storehouse nor barn. The dove is still the favorite bird of the house and the grove, and is held sacred by Mohammedans, as the symbol of harmless- 1~ Book II. C. 32, 35. I Look VI. C. 35. Schwartzs Palestine, p. 300. 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 99 ness and purity. The sparrow is still so annoying by its num- bers upon the house-tops, and so little relished as food, that two might be bought for a farthing. The ox and the ass are still the favorite beasts of burden, and the asss colt is the common saddle-beast of the poorer people, even as when Jesus came meekly riding on the foal of an ass. Sheep and goats, however, are the most numerous of the domestic ani- mals of Palestine; and every allusion to these in the p~rables and discourses of Christ may be verified among the flocks and sheepfolds of the country as one sees them to-day. At certain seasons of the year the shepherd lives with his sheep in the open air, abiding in the field keeping watch over the flock by night. At other times, when cold or danger threatens, all the flocks of the village are gathered within a walled enclosure, whose door is in the keeping of the porter. In the morning each shepherd calls out his own sheep, and they, knowing his voice, follow him to their feeding-places, where, armed with sling, staff, or other weapon, he watches them against the wolf or the robber. When the time of dividing the flocks comes, the sheep are separated from the goats. In the open country the fields unbroken by fences and traversed by the highway the sower may drop seed upon stony places or on the wayside, to be trodden under foot of men. When the wheat is in the ear, the traveller, following the path through the field, may pluck his hands full, rub out the grain, and eat. In marshy spots the zowan, or tare ,will often spring up and choke the wheat, where only good seed had been sown. The barley-loaf remains a common article of diet. At harvest-time one sees the oxen treading out the grain upon the great stone floor in the open air, where the wind carries away the chaff, or the fan in the hand of the husbandman thoroughly purges his floor of dust and refuse. At evening, in the doorways, the women, usually two, sit to- gether at the millstones, grinding the meal for the next morn- ing. For the baking, as wood is scarce, dry weeds and grass are gathered to be cast into the little oven of earth, and burned. If the traveller in Palestine would rest by the wayside, as he approaches a village, he will find the well or the fountain 100 THE CHRONOLOGY, TOPOGRAPhY, AND ARCIIA9OLOGY [July, to which the women resort to draw water; and he may sit under the wide-spread branches of the sycamore, wholly unlike the American tree of that name, reminding himself how easily Zaccheus, from such a tree, could scrutinize the crowd as it passed along; and also how great must be the faith that would pluck up this deep-set tree by the roots. Perhaps near by he may see the mustard-seed grown to a shrub in which birds make their nests; or by some brook or moistened valley, near Tabor or Nazareth, his eye may feast upon the lilies of the field, with which all the glory of Solo- mon could not compare. The plain of Jericho might still furnish palm-branches for the royal welcome of the Son of David; the fig-tree would still illustrate his parables ; the olive would yield its oil to the good Samaritan; the vineyard, with its wine-press and tower, with its well-pruned vines and abundant fruits, is at hand as a commentary upon the last dis- courses of Jesus; while the buckthorn and a species of cactus, simulating the grape and the fig, remain to point the proverb that men do not gather grapes of thorns nor figs of thistles. Perhaps in the early season one might be attracted to a fig- tree by its promising foliage, to find nothing thereon but leaves only, a symbol of a cultivated intellect with an un- believing heart. The life of Christ must take its place in history among the realities of earth and time. We may not be able to trace its every link, to identify its every footstep; here, perchance, we may wander; there miss the right clew; yet, if with a true and living faith we seek to bring home to our hearts the great features of the Evangelical history, to journey with our Master over the lonely mountains of Galilee; to sit with him beside the busy waters of the Lake of Genesareth; to follow his footsteps into remote and half-pagan lands, or to hang on his lips in the courts of his Fathers house, we shall not seek in vain. The history of the Gospels will be more and more to us a living history. * The patient study of that his- tory, in the candid and liberal spirit of true criticism, can lead only to the conclusion of the reality of the life of Christ as Ellicott, pp. 141, 142. 1863.] OF THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 101 there recorded. And whatever harmonistic and chronological difficulties may yet remain in certain passages of that life, we may gladly observe, with Bishop Ellicott, that order and con- nection have been found where there was once deemed to be only confusion and incoherence, that the inspired narratives are regarded no longer as discrepant, but as self-explanatory, and that honest investigation is showing more and more clearly, that what one inspired writer ~has left unrecorded another has often supplied, with an incidental preciseness of adjustment which is all the more convincing from being seen and felt to be undesigned. * For such a study we know of no more agreeable and in- structive helpers than the two authors whose works we have now brought to the notice of the reader. Each should be read in its own order; Mr. Andrewss, for the thorough his- torical and geographical groundwork of the life of Christ; Bishop Ellicotts, for the devout realization of that life upon this basis of actuality. Mr. Andrews preserves the calm, exact, critical style of the historian, never indulging in homi- letic reflections or in devotional meditations; yet he is not wanting in fervor of conviction or in vivacity of narration. his work is by far the most complete, trustxvorthy, and satis- factory digest of the later results of criticism upon the life of Christ that has appeared in the English language. NotI~ii~g of importance seems to have escaped his notice, and no point has been evaded or slurred over because of unresolved diffi- culties. Bishop Ellicotts volume retains the popular and hortatory style of discourses which assume the inspired char- acter of the Gospels. They are therefore less forcible as an argument for the credibility of the Gospels, but are rich and eloquent in the portraiture of the life of Christ. Nor are they wanting in a critical analysis of doubtful points, which is carefully elaborated in learned notes. Thus the two works supplement each other; and if we study them connectedly, the things narrated of the earthly life of Christ will seem so close, so near, so true, that our faith in Jesus will be such as no sophistry can weaken, no doubtfulness becloud. * Page 220. We do not moot the question of inspiration, the fact of which Bishop Elhcott assumes. 9* 102 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, ART. IV. 1. The Duty of a Risincr Christian State to con- 6 tribute to the Worlds TJ7ell-being and Civilization, and the Means by which it may perform the same. The Annual Oration before the t31ommon Council and Citizens of llIon- rovia, Liberia, July 26, 1855, being the Day of National Independence. By ALEXANDER CRUMMELL. London. 1856. 2. The English Language in Liberia. The Annual Address before the Citizens of Maryland County, Cape Patinas, Liberia, July 26, 1860, being the Day of National Inde- pendence. By ALEXANDER CRUMMELL. New York. 1861. 3. The Relations and Duties of Free Colored Men in Amer- ica to Africa. A Letter to Charles B. Dunbar. By ALEX- ANDER CRUMMELL. Hartford. 1862. 4. PKbceedings at the Inauguration of Liberia College, at Monrovia, January 23, 1862. Published by Order of the Legislature of Liberia. 5. Liberias Contributions to Letters and Theology. The Future of Africa. By REV. ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, Profes- soy of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy in Liberia Col- lege. Liberias Offering, being Addresses and Sermons. By REV. EDWARD W. BLYDEN, Professor of Languages in Liberia College. 2 vols. New York. 1862. Jr is impossible to read any ordinary account of Africa without having the mind filled with images of sadness, and the heart aroused to a painful sympathy. Such a picture of deso- lation, ignorance, cruelty, and general degradation, with the thought that the people are our fellow-beings, that their ag- gregate numbers approach a hundred millions, and that every avenue to their relief seems sealed, deatI~,in some fearfnl shape, guarding every portal, is indeed most appalling. Nothing so reproachful to our humanity is to be found on all Gods earth. It is as if the ocean the silent highway which brings into happy contact all other lands had in the case of Africa served only to wash away the tie of blood that bears witness to the universal brotherhood of man. We compass Arctic seas and dare the most horrible fate in pitiless wilder- nesses of ice, to find the bones of one dead man; but it is

102 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, ART. IV. 1. The Duty of a Risincr Christian State to con- 6 tribute to the Worlds TJ7ell-being and Civilization, and the Means by which it may perform the same. The Annual Oration before the t31ommon Council and Citizens of llIon- rovia, Liberia, July 26, 1855, being the Day of National Independence. By ALEXANDER CRUMMELL. London. 1856. 2. The English Language in Liberia. The Annual Address before the Citizens of Maryland County, Cape Patinas, Liberia, July 26, 1860, being the Day of National Inde- pendence. By ALEXANDER CRUMMELL. New York. 1861. 3. The Relations and Duties of Free Colored Men in Amer- ica to Africa. A Letter to Charles B. Dunbar. By ALEX- ANDER CRUMMELL. Hartford. 1862. 4. PKbceedings at the Inauguration of Liberia College, at Monrovia, January 23, 1862. Published by Order of the Legislature of Liberia. 5. Liberias Contributions to Letters and Theology. The Future of Africa. By REV. ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, Profes- soy of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy in Liberia Col- lege. Liberias Offering, being Addresses and Sermons. By REV. EDWARD W. BLYDEN, Professor of Languages in Liberia College. 2 vols. New York. 1862. Jr is impossible to read any ordinary account of Africa without having the mind filled with images of sadness, and the heart aroused to a painful sympathy. Such a picture of deso- lation, ignorance, cruelty, and general degradation, with the thought that the people are our fellow-beings, that their ag- gregate numbers approach a hundred millions, and that every avenue to their relief seems sealed, deatI~,in some fearfnl shape, guarding every portal, is indeed most appalling. Nothing so reproachful to our humanity is to be found on all Gods earth. It is as if the ocean the silent highway which brings into happy contact all other lands had in the case of Africa served only to wash away the tie of blood that bears witness to the universal brotherhood of man. We compass Arctic seas and dare the most horrible fate in pitiless wilder- nesses of ice, to find the bones of one dead man; but it is LIBERIA COLLEGE. 1o~ 18G.3.] impossible to awaken a thousandth part of the interest in the actual sufferings and moral death of the myriads of Africa. And why? Because they are so miserable, so utterly to be pitied Theirs is, indeed, a strange, an anomalous fate. Those who interest themselves in searching out the springs and tributaries of crime and misery in great cities, learn to recognize in Darkness a great power for evil, in Light a benign moral as well as sanitary agent. In proportion as the wretched live in dungeon-cellars and unwindowed garrets, or in by-ways whose labyrinthine coils forbid the entrance of the full light of day, is found the tendency of poor humanity to sink to the lowest depths of degradation without a struggle or an upward glance. The best cure devised, the only wholesale remedy, is the run- ning of a wide street through the infected district, a path of light, straight as a beam of the blessed sun, irresistible in its power of cutting open poisonous blind alleys and horrible knots of murder and worse than murder, and in which by night floods of gas-light secure safety and decency more effec- tually than the best police. But Africa, unhappy Africa, enormous continent, seem- ingly God-forsaken and man-abhorred, known as the home of rapine, treachery, and savage barbarity, such as it makes the flesh creep to read of, Africa, who sells her children without shame or mercy; whose festivity is the slaughter of helpless and unoffending victims, and her choicest morsel their quivering flesh; whose religion is, if possible, more abomi- riable than her amusements, and from whose many dialects all words which signify any noble or honest, any pitiful or devout feeling, have dropped away as useless, their places supplied by others which betray familiarity with things accursed; bathed in sunshine which, forsaking its better office, corrupts instead of purifying; suffering the torments of a lidless eye, blasted with excess of light, what a fate is hers! Fierce beasts and venomous reptiles, plants full of death, and winds that carry pestilence, are hers, and men of like nature seem her natural product. Better aninial and material things may be found here and there, gold, ivory, precious woods and oils and gums, cotton, sugar, coffee; but we are forced to think 104 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, that better men, men who have in them the gift of healing and the love to use it, must needs be exotic. No germ of improve- ment exists among her native tribes ; the elephants that roam her wastes or congregate about her infrequent springs might as reasonably be expected to agree upon a social polity, or to originate a code of morals. Without a miracle, Africa must receive the awakening and purifying power for which she languishes through men imported from more favored lands. Dumb and helpless, she can never seek the true light, the Light of Life. Generous pity, enlightened benevolence, Chris- tian love, must go to her where she lies, bleeding and helpless; must lift her drooping head, find balm for her many woes, and show her the cure for that blindness which is her curse. Africa is called missionary ground, and truly. She is the Gods acre of that devoted band, both men and wo- men, who, moved by a divine pity, have crossed the world to labor and suffer in her behalf, and whose remains lie beneath her burning marle; for few indeed have ever returned even to find a resting-place within the dear bosom of their na- tive land. Better face the bullets that are decimating our armies, than the more insidious dangers of an African home. A slave-trader, or other murderous wholesale robber, may elude the withering, venomous power of the climate, for he is protected by a Mithridatic charm, pre-saturated with a poison which not even Africa can overmatch. But the man of mind, gently bred, and especially the woman of our race, goes to Africa as the martyrs of earlier times went to the ordeal of fire, fully aware that innocence will be no protection. The blazing, consuming sun that makes Sahara a desert, and one half whose torrid light would cover Siberias dreary steppes with villages and abundant human life, has no mercy on pale faces. As well sow wheat before the simoom as send out our brethren and sisters to labor under that terrible sky. Sani- tary care, temperance, heroism, nothing avails. Burning days, succeeded by almost frosty nights of deadly damp; a season of killing heat which ushers in a deluge of rain, to be followed by another heat that dries up the rivers and annilii- lates vegetation, these alternate extremes, which admit of no alleviation, forbid the white mans hope of evangelizing Africa. 105 18G~L] LIBERIA COLLEGE. Death is not to be coaxed into sympathy with even our holiest aims and efforts. That the civilization and Christianization of the Land of Light shall be undertaken and accomplished, is doubtless writ- ten. For what age and what instrumentality the work is re- served remains to be developed. But why it should not be attempted in our day, and by those who speak our English tongue, it is difficult to see. We live in a period of great un- dertakings and great discoveries; among the latter this, great- est of all, that there are no insuperable difficulties. The idea entertained, the impulse felt, the obstacles thoroughly in- vestigated and understood, the means will be found. But the motive power must not be that love of gain which has been hitherto the chief prompter in any interest in the great lonely continent, and which has in too many cases been gratified in a way which might, were that possible, teach new barbarity to Africa, and give a deeper tinge to the bloody rites of Dahomey. It must be no vampyre spirit, willing to suck what it craves even from the decaying corpse, but the zeal of the good phy- sician, who freely and gladly brings all the resources of science, all the patience and hope of love, to bear upon the body seem- ing dead, in the hope of discovering and fanning into full life some yet vital spark. The impulse towards an object so un- promising and so unpopular must be noble and disinterested, and calm wisdom and far-seeing sagacity will be required to make it efficient. Suitable instrumentality will not be far to seek. The wise and liberal souls who are to undertake the great work will find artificers ready. Our readers will, of course, have perceived that, considering as we do the climate of Africa impracticable for white men, our hope for her rests on the belief that another race, of tropical origin, awaits only our hearty co-operation and generous help to do that which personally we cannot do. Men there are among us who, competent morally and intel- lectually to be the seed-wheat of a moral wilderness, are also endowed with a constitutional aptitude for resisting the mi- asms of a torrid wilderness. They are men to whom long and grinding oppression has taught the value of religion, and to whom piety, enlightened or not, has become as natural as their 106 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, inborn love of muSic ; men, too, whose skin the texture and color of which in our country bring upon them only pov- erty and a ferocious contempt finds its natural and health- ful action under a sky which scorches our very marrow. They are a people passionately desirous of learning, as will be testified by those who have seen the treml)iing band of three- score and the ebony fingers of childhood grasping the same primer with equal eagerness, to find out the names of the let- ters, and to comprehend the magic power which forms familiar words out of these mystical characters. And their teachers tell, too, of the surprising readiness with which they acquire the simple rudiments which are thus offered, a readiness which will doubtless be found to keep pace with the higher learning which better fortunes will soon place within their reach. Those who doubt the capacity of the black man for instruc- tion may sneer at this assumption, but there are already facts enough, and a state of things actually existent, which must consign all such scepticism to the limbo of ignorance and prejudice. Doubts are natural enough, it is true, under the circumstances, and it would seem as if they might claim the support of philosophy and experience; for where can be found an instance of slaverys having nursed intelligence, or of elevated traits of character having been brought out by the lash ? The success which has attended the few rational efforts hitherto made to educate the man of color may, without exaggeration, be claimed to have shown him unusually sus- ceptible of intellectual light. It is true that the half-savage field negro, to whom no human being ever offered an intel- lectual pleasure, even in the shape of a childs picture-book or a word of rational information, would be a poor subject for collegiate instruction. Put is he a fair specimen of the race, imbruted as he is by toil and ignorance, of set purpose kept in blindness, lest a ray of light should make him mad? What would be thought, says Mr. Shedd, in an address before the Colonization Society of Massachusetts, of a generalization in ~respeet to the native traits and capacities of the whole Celtic stock, of the entire hlood of polished France and eloquent Ireland and the gallant Highlands, that should be deduced from the brutish descendants of 1863.] LIBERIA COLLEGE. 107 those Irish who were driven out of Ulster and Southdown in the time of Cromwell; men now of the most repulsive characteristics, with open, projecting mouths, prominent and exposed gums, advnncing cheek-bones, depressed noses; height five feet two inches on an aver- age; bow-legged, abortively featured; their clothing a wisp of rags spectres of a people that were once well-grown, able-bodied, and comely? But such a judgment would he of equal value with that narrow estimate of the natural traits and characteristics of the inhabit- ants of one entire quarter of the globe, which rests upon nn acquaint- ance with a small portion of them, carried into a foreign land and reduced to slavery.~~ Even in slavery, the smallest chance of self-improvement tells on the black. If he stand behind his masters chair or drive the carriage of his mistress, let him be of never so pure ebony in color, he will invariably be fbund to have imbibed many more and higher ideas than his employers desired to impart. We should be sorry to confine white children to such an amount of education; and it is questionable whether, were the cases reversed, our children would succeed any better in entrapping the stray sunbeams of the mental heaven than do the impressible and imitative people of African blood. It is a pity that what few glimpses of knowledge have fallen in their way have not been better worth catching. Of their fitness to endure extremes of climate and other personal hardships we have abundant proof, without going beyond the rice-fields of South Carolina and the swamps of Florida. One of themselves a college-bred man of color, the Rev. A. Crummell, of Queens College, Cambridge, Eng- land speaks of it thus In connection with the painful providenees of our lot in this nation, God has given us also special advantages. One of these is capability of endurance and wonderful tenacity of life. The black man, even in the lands of his thraldom, shows extraordinary vitality. If you go into some quarters of the earth, you cannot but see how, at the approach of a civilIzing power, the aboriginal races fade away and perish. The mere breath of civilization seems destruction to them, and they vanish before it. But the black man appears to be of harder stock; he lives, even under the most adverse circumstances. The old slave-traders used to say the ne~ro had nine lives. however severe the storm of disuster, he still stands, and, endowed with a most plastic nature, he can suit himself to the hardest lot. 108 inca cornea. [July, The condition and prospects of the African race in our country have never been so interesting and important as at the present moment According to the opinion and estimate of one of the most intelligent and eminent of their friends, Mr. Latrobe of Baltimore, President of the American Coloni- zation Society, the situation of the free blacks before the com- mencement of the war was miserable, if not hopeless. The condition of the free colored population as a class is inferior to what it was in 1816 They find by sad experience how ins- sistible is white competition in a strife for bread. Excluded from many an accustomed calling, legislation has been invoked to straiten their condition, and emancipation has been prohibited lest the numbers of so superfluous a class should grow too fast. Strenuous eflbrts, made under favorable circumstances, to put them on a footing of equality with the white race, have resulted only in increasing public prejudice. Courts of justice have recognized the existence of this feeling, and even in those States which boast peculiar sympathies in their behalf; the distinc- tion of caste practically pervades the entire community, so far as they are concerned. And why should all this be? Why at least have the free colored people not been permitted to maintain the kindlier rein. tions, indifferent as those were, of half a century ago? Personally they have not deteriorated in the interval. In individual cases the free man of color has wonderfully improved; he is better educated, more refined; with appreciative tastes, an elevated ambition, comfort- able means, often wealth. They voted, in Maryland, up to 1809, and the popular almanac, at the beginning of the present century, in the States of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginis, was the work of Benjamin Banneker, a man of unmixed African descent Why, then, the change in question? There is but one cause to which it can be attributed, the increase of our aggregate population. The two races are coming, day by day, into closer contact. Collisions, of old unknown, are beginning to occur between the masses of the respec- tive populations. The old story of the Spaniard and the Moor is being re-enacted in our midst. We are but illustrating the law that invari- ably prevails where two races that cannot amalgamate by intermar- rage occupy the same land. flat is here put forth with regard to the half.million or more of free blacks in 1860 applies with greater force to those of the present time, whose numbers we cannot attempt to com~ pute. The problem as to the fate of these unhappy multitudes 1863.] LIBERIA COLLEGE. 109 is one of the deepest interest, not only to themselves and to us, but to the whole civilized world. Here they are, by no fault of their own, living, sentient creatures, of generous nature, with the same needs, the same desires, the same future destiny, as our own; and, so far as their condition in this world goes, an immediate and heavy responsibility rests upon us. How, in view of all the difficulties, shall it be met? Legislation may forbid, but it is utterly incompe- tent to ordain, anything with regard to their future under the new rigime. A free man is free, whatever be his color. We can enforce upon him the restraints of law and order; we can punish him for begging, and at the same time prohibit his practising any trade of which he feels himself capable, and by which he might earn an honest livelihood; we may tax him, though he has no political status; we may exclude him from our public conveyances, our churches, and our schools, and by laws worthy of Japanese brains may drive him from the borders of States whose lands lie untilled for want of the very labor he would bring; but we cannot force him to go hither or thither, or to practise this or that trade or way of life, with- out reducing him again to the condition of a slave. We can only, having first gained his confidence, enlighten, advise, aid, and defend him. He is at liberty to choose his path, narrowed as it is, wisely or unwisely, as the case may be ; but we of more knowledge may warn him against the evil, and offer inducements toward the advantageous and the happy. When a river is to be forded, the man who has long lived on its banks can be of essential service to the stranger or the child who is obliged to cross; and these new-made citizens of ours, who have been so long in a state of pupilage, yet not taught, are but children and strangers in the path of life. Even already they mutely appeal to us for help, and it must be owned that the very depth of their need chills our human- ity. How can we undertake a task so immense? It is plain that our power lies in theirs. Our ability to help them depends on their ability and willingness to help them- selves. We might try in vain to lift a dead weight so fearful, but to their strength we may with good hope add the power of our machinery. They ask nothing more. To feel their VOL. xcvn.No. 200. 10 110 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, own responsibility is one of their new pleasures. Under all their misfortunes, all their discouragements, all their sad and bittcr memories, they are full of spirit. There is nothing of the beggar about tbem. Europeans as poor, as untaught, as much abused, would be abject, but the negro never. Win his affection and confidence, show him that you are thoroughly kind and true, and he will serve you heartily and faithfully. Use him ill, wound his pride, trample on his self-respect, and he will bear with you as long as he must, but you have not conqnered him. This spirit, inherent in the race, its enemies and contemners call impudence, even when it exhibits itself in no more aggressive form than walking about the streets well dressed and with a cheerful and assured look. But it is what Eastern people call grit, and respect very highly in persons of their own complexion, and what the few who do not despise a black skin denominate, quite as truly, inanli- ness. That the colored people should retain it under all the cruel injustice and wrong that have been heaped upon them is most remarkable. The black man is a perfect Jack-in-time- box ~s to oppression. While the lid is well on, he is quiet and submissive ; but the first chance for liberty and light shows the power of a strong spring in him. In the District of Co- lumbia, where we have, as it were, a cabinet picture of the effect of emancipation upon the individual, we cannot but ad- mire the behavior of the blacks. Quiet, orderly, and, if some- what elated by the great boon, yet restraining all outward signs of elation with what almost merits the name of dignity, they bate no jot of heart or hope at being sent forth upon the world to take care of themselves, though they have been in- dustriously taught to think this a task impossible to them. It is true, they do not fully appreciate the difficulties before them. They fancy that we are going to be more just and kind, more reasonable and Christian, than before. Let us hope, not only for their sake, but for our own, that it may be so. But ,again, intuition has not taught them political economy. As they have no nationality and no concert, they feel and judge only as imidi- viduals, each deducing his future from his past. But the iron law of the dreadful science founded on human selfishness will none the less confront them as they attempt to advance: when 1863.] 111 two races struggle for existence on the same ground, the weaker must give way. So has it been ever since the world began ; so must it be till shall we say the millennium ? The colonization plans of our excellent President are doubt- less based upon his conviction that this struggle must be a fruitless one on the part of the colored race. He is not san- guine enough to think and, indeed, his surroundings do not seem calculated to inspire the confidence that men are more virtuous or more brotherly, wiser or more disinterested, now than they have been in times past; and his kindly nature would give the new freemen a fair chance to show their powers and use their liberty in a clear field. But his intended beneficiaries, though they love and honor him as their great benefactor and sincere friend, are not attracted by the pros- pect held out to them. They have their own views, with which feeling and habit have not a little to do. They have no idea of being removed. They deny that they are for- eigners, and claim the privilege of remaining in their own country, unless they see it for their interest to go elsewhere. Children of instinct, of affinities, of affections, as they are, no one of a different race can plan acceptably for them. They must work out their own salvation, and they will do it in due time. We must have patience. Mr. Latrobe says: Apprehensive as are the intelligent among them with regard to the future, whither can they look? They have already tried Hayti, and found it wantin ~. Alike in color, but unlike in all other respects, they have neither affluities nor sympathies with its people. They have no desire to be hewers of wood and drawers of water in the British colo- nies of Trinidad and Demerara. They fully appreciate the motives of those who invite them to the West Indies. With no spot on the Amer- ican continent not appropriated to the white mans nse, and his exclu- sively, whither can they go to avoid the throu~ of multiplying thou- sands now competing with them in all the avenues of labor? Whither, when the West, which now by absorbing the foreign immigration re- lieves them from the pressure on the seaboard that would otherwise crush them, whither, when the West, too, shall have a reduudant population, shall they go? Whither but to Africa, where climate genial and salubrious to the descendants of the soil PROTECTS THEM AS wITH A WALL or FIRE AGAINST THE ENCROACLIMENTS OF THE EHITE MAN, guards the headland, sentinels the mine, and stays, even LIBERIA COLLEGE. 112 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, on the very border of the sea, on the rivers, and ia the forest, that march of empire which pestilence alone can check? Forty-four years ago, Rev. Robert Finley of New Jersey, moved, as he said, by the increasing wretchedness of the negroes, originated the idea of planting a colony in Africa, the object of which should be to induce the fre,e people of color to go and settle there. He met with some sympathy, and more ridicule; excited a good deal of attention, and also a large share of violent opposition. There were those who saw that the free blacks were in a miserably degraded condi- tion among us, arid who were ready to commend, if not to aid, almost any scheme for their relief; and there were irot a few to whom the idea of doing anything for the grinning, blubber- lipped half-baboon called a negro was ludicrous in the ex- treme, and who believed that any man pretending to take an interest in them was a hypocrite, who had his own ends to answer. The thinking and conscientious among our citizens discussed the scheme in their way, and were in general favor- ably impressed by it, although they perceived at once that the number of persons who could be sent to Africa, properly fitted out for the new life they were to lead there and reasonably secured against its difficulties and dangers, could bear scarcely an appreciable proportion to the mass of free blacks among us, if only private benevolence was to be invoked in their behalf; while the advocates of immediate emancipation stren- uously opposed the whole plan, as being likely to quiet the conscience of the slaveholder, and to make him feel all the more secure in holding his human chattels, for having freed a small fraction of them and fitted them out for exportation. Some enthusiastic individuals there were who rejoiced in the idea that all the free blacks could be removed and colonized, and who would hardly believe figures when the sum necessary for colonizing even the increase of a single year was exhibited to their wondering eyes. But good Mr. Finley persevered, saying that he knew the thing was of God, and in December, 1816, his prayers and efforts resulted in the formation of the American Colonization Society, which has ever since been sedulously at work, sustained mainly by the benevoleiice of individuals, and winning the approbation of maiiy of our 1863.] LIBERIA COLLEGE. 113 wisest and most eminent statesmen, divines, and philanthro- pists. If the intention had been the deportation of free colored people contrary to their own will and wishes, all the oppro- brium heaped upon the society by its bitterest enemies would have been simply just; and there were stories of force used in getting emigrants on shipboard, and of prisons employed for confining them after they had consented to go, lest they should foolishly change their minds, which, true or false, operated at one time very damagingly against any and every effort to persuade the free blacks, however poor and wretched, to go to Africa under any circumstances. There were in- stances of slaves, whose masters, dying, had bequeathed them freedom, on condition that they should consent to be colonized in Africa, refusing even that greatest of earthly boons through fear of the horrors they had been taught to dread in case of emioration. But gradually the true idea, that with which Mr. Finley began, the providing of a place in Africa whither colored people could go, and where they might settle, came to be generally understood, and benevolence and common sense ba~ e both been enlisted in its favor. He died in the faith which subsequent events have abundantly justified; for LIBERIA has become the nucleus of a civilization modelled on our own, and at this moment offers all the inducements which are found powerful in other cases to colored men who desire a fitting home. The colony has become an independent republic, known everywhere as such, and having commercial treaties with the principal nations of the civilized world. It is yet feeble; but it stands alone, and possesses the elements of fu- ture strength. It has good laws, well administered; churches and schools; the mutual-aid societies of more advanced com- munities ; agricultural exhibitions, with their annual prizes a militia, tried and not found wanting; a traffic with the interior, very advantageous to all concerned; a foreign com- merce, and ever increasing commercial resources. Light- houses guide ships into the ports ; revenue-cutters watch over the public interests on the coast. Colored people go thither, not because they are fascinated by the eloquence of coloniza- 10* 114 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, tion agents, not for want of love to the land they leave, but to better their condition. All that colonization has aimed at doing, says Mr. Latrobe, has been in view of voluntary, self-paying emigration, an emigration that finds its prece- dents in the history of every people, from the nomadic tribe whose encampment shifts with failing springs or withering pasturage, to the community which, driven by religious perse- cution from the Old World, lauded from the Mayflower, or that which encountered the perils of Cape Horn, attracted by the gold fields of California. In speaking of Liberia and her prospects of happiness and usefulness, it is necessary to recollect that all glowing antici- pations in respect to any great changes for the bette~ in this world are regarded with distrust, and that we can expect to carry the reader with us no farther than we are able to main- tain a certain cool indifference, and to refer rather to the statistician than to the prophet. Yet really the contemplation of Liberia as she is awakens such admiration and such hopes that it is difficult to maintain a philosophic coolness in speak- ing of what she has already accomplished. Let us, then, bor- row the sober words of the (English) Society for promoting Christian Knowledge The progress of this colored settlement during the last forty years has h rdly been surpassed by anything recorded in the history of civil- ization ; and it may, therefore, be said with truth, that the negro has given the lie to the assertion of the ethnological sci olists who, presum- ing on his alleged natural inferiority, declared him incapable of taking care of himself. He has taken care of himself, has provided by nets of courage and self-denial for the growth of his prosperity, for tbe education of his children, and for his instruction in the truths of Chris- tianity; and in so doing has forever solved and settled the question as to his capacity for self-government. A more enthusiastic tone may perhaps be tolerated in a Li- berian, one who, having enjoyed the best educational ad- vantages which England can offer, is now wholly devoted to the land of his adoption Here, all around and beyond us, on every side, in ourselves and children, and in the coming days at hand, are spur and stimulus and 1863.] 115 hi~h incitement to every noble work and lofty desire that has circled the brain of the greatest men earth ever saw in all her histories. The ocean, in majesty and magnificence, seems inviting argosies of sails from our ports and harbors, laden with tropical products for foreign lands. This vast and wild Africa, to indefinite depths, seems now yearning to throw off the forest, the jungle, and the bush, and to open a pathway for the spade, the hoe, and the scythe; so that all the world, ere the coming of its last days, may delight itself with its prolific fulness and its vast and inexhaustible riches. Tribe after tribe, far inward, through marsh, over mountain, down beyond the broad valleys, clear off to the large central lakes of the continent, starts up, and seems listening to the faint music of the distant Gospel sweetly sounding on this coast, and craves its blessings and its gifts. In a public address at Monrovia by the same writer we have this exposition of his desires and hopes for his country: The world needs a higher type of true nationality than it now has; why should not we furnish it? I know the wont to regard precedent in fashioning and compacting the fabric of government. And it is, to a great degree, a wise tendency, for it is a perilous sea on which to em- bark, that of nationality; and all along its course one sees strewn, everywhere, the wrecks of nations. And therefore an infhnt state needs, and should seek light And this light comes, to a great degree, from the past, the light of national experience. hence we must read history, and the philosophy of history, and laws, and the genius and spirit of laws. But are we ever to be bound by these? Are they ever to hold the spirit, and the brain, and the healthful instincts of cul- mivated and civilized humanity, in this day of the worlds high advance- ment, hold them ever in check and close restraint? Must we, in order to be a nation, imitate all the crudities and blunders which states- manship has gravely handed down in history as rule and authority? I trust not; for no thoughtful man can look into the histoy of states without perceiving many national forms and established customs which even now have mastery, but which are nothing more nor less than empty gewgaws. I do not lack, by any means, reverence for the sage wisdom of ages; neither do I despise the ancient forms of older states, which often are the clothes garments of noble truths. But he must be blind who does not see that the formal precedents and the hol- low forms which, for ages, have held and bound the souls of vast cmpires and mighty kingdoms, are now vanishing before the clear brain and the cool common-sense of mankind. LIBERIA COLLEGE. 116 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, Even now we hear, with inward strife, A motion toiling in the gloom, The spirit of the years to come Yearning to mix himself with life. A slow developed strength awaits Completion in a painful school, Phantoms of other forms of rule, New majesties of mighty states. Why should we haste, with foolish, blind zeal, to pick up the chaW and rust, and offal, which wise nations are throwing away? Why not seize upon their cautious, prudent eclecticism, now, in our masculine youth, instead of going the round of a stale, perhaps a foul experience? Why not make OURSELVES a precedent? Why should we not profit by the centuries of governmental history, if even we should appear venturesome? The noble soul by age grows lustier, Her appetite and her digestion mend; ATe cannot hope to feed and nonrish her With womans milk and pap unto the end: Provide you manlier diet! If I mistake not, the great desideratum of the nations is a ri n id honesty; a clear, straightforward rectitude; the absence of chicane, of guile, and eunnino; the cleaving the meshes of policies and heartless diplomacy; and the constant and happy consciousness of the ideas of God, of truth, and of duty. This sounds ambitious, but it is ambitious in the right direc- tion, and the opinion of a solid American writer of the present tone of Liberia sustains Mr. Crummell in his lofty aspira- tions This Liberian republic is a really Christian state. There is not now, probably, an organized commonwealth upon the globe, in which the principles of Christianity are applied with such a childlike direct- ness and simplicity to the management of public affairs, as in Liberia. New England, in the days of her childhood, and before the conflicting interests of ecclesiastical denominations introduced jealousies, Ge- neva, in the time of John Calvin, when the church and the state were practically one and the same body, now acting through the consistory, and now through the council, in fine, all religious commonwealths in their infancy, and before increasing wealth and luxury have stupefied conscience and dimmed the moral p reeption, furnish examples of the 1863.] 117 existing state of things in the African republic. Even the common school education, which the Liberian constitution provides for the whole population, has been given by the missionary, and in connection with the most direct religious instructions and influences. The state papers of the Liberian executive and legislature breathe a grave and serious spirit, like that which inspires the documents of our own Colonial and Revolutionary periods. What we gather from these extracts as to the progress already made in Liberia towards intellectual improvement makes the idea of a college there, adapted to the wants of her newly organized population, seem neither incongruous nor premature. Common schools she has already established, and the reputation of these, spreading among the native tribes in her vicinity, brings numbers of young persons from the inte- rior in quest of education. As early as 1836 a citizen of Mis- sissippi, Captain Isaac Ross, whose name deserves most respect- ful mention, bequeathed freedom to his slaves on condition of their emigrating to Liberia, accompanying this legacy with the gift of his whole estate, valued at one hundred thousand dol- lars, to be used for the benefit of the persons so emigrating to the land then so dim and distant, and for the establishment of a college in Liberia. Unhappily the estate fell into litigation, as is but too common in such cases, and in twelve years the depletion went so far that the expense of removing one hun- dred and seventy-six slaves to Africa absorbed nearly all that remained. On the 30th of May, 1849, the Massachusetts Colonization Society, at its annual meeting, decided that the Republic of Liberia ought to have within itself the means for educating citizens for all the duties of public and private life, and at once appealed to the National and State societies to unite in an effort for this excellent purpose. Such appeals in our coun- try never fall unanswered, and in this case approbation and sympathy were ready. Trustees were appointed, donations of considerable amount were received; friends sprang up on all sides, and the generous enterprise soon took a decided shape. It is curious to read the fate of legacies to benevolent objects; it would seem that the result was intended to teach rich and public-spirited men to be their own executors, and not to tempt LIBERIA COLLEGE. 118 LIBERIA C0LLEG1~. [July, their heirs to disgrace themselves by trying to divert the wealth they covet to channels never intended by the owner. Some legacies reached the college fund, that of $ 10,000 left by Mr. Samuel Appleton of Boston, and another of $ 5,000 from the estate of Josiah White of Philadelphia. But one from the late Mr. Stanton of Illinois, to be expended in promoting the cause of education in Liberia, met the fate of Captain Rosss good gift, and never came into the possession of Liberia or her friends. A very large bequest of Mr. Anson J. Phelps of New York was set aside as being void through uncertainty, al- though the intention and wish of the testator were clear as the sun at noonday. Thus, if the college had been fated to de- pend on legacies, we might have been obliged to defer for a long time the announcement of its completion. The Liberian government passed an act establishing Liberia College, incorporated a Board of Trustees, and granted to the institution one hundred acres of land on the right or north- west bank of the river St. Paul, about twelve miles from its mouth and fifteen miles in a direct line from Monrovia. This position was chosen on account of its various advantages, par- ticularly that of salubrity, the place being one to which inva- lids suffering from the climate resort for the recovery of their health. But black men proved in this case only too much like white men. Selfishness stepped in; this man and that insisted that the college should be built where it would be of some private advantage to himself, and controversy delayed the great work for several years. The principal materials required for the building were sent from this country in 1857, the ship which carried them being ballasted with brick of better quality than can as yet be produced on the spot. Litigation and dis- pute caused all to be laid aside for a time, and it was feared that much loss would ensue. But through extra care this evil was averted, and the wood-work, being kept under shelter, was little, if at all, injured. A few faithful men watched over the interests they had so much at heart, and through all the storm of opposition never lost sight of the main object, the perma- iient and worthy foundation of an institution which should outlast all these choice materials, and prove a blessing to the world for ages. The founding of Harvard College, said 1863.] LIBERIA COLLEGE. 119 3ne of them, forms an epoch in the history of the United States; why should not the founding of Liberia College be an epoch in the history of Africa U At length all impediments were overcome ; the building proceeded, was finished, to the satisfaction of all, substantial, elegant, capable of expansion, and offering at once the space at present required for students and their exercises, and room for the families of two resident professors. It stands seventy feet in length by forty-five in width, three stories high, and surrounded by an iron-framed verandah eight feet wide, all on a foundation of granite~ A dining-room sufficiently large to serve for all the inmates ; a room for the library and the phi- losophical apparatus; a hall to be used as chapel, lecture-room, or for any other purpose for which students and faculty are to be convened; rooms for study and recitation; dormitories, offices, and store-rooms, are included in the building, the kitchen being detached, yet in easy communication with the dining-room. The library has already a recognizable exist- ence, for Professor Crummell has obtained from friends in the United States four thousand volniucs, many of them rare and valuable, and to these the Corporation of Harvard University adds six hundred. These, with other private gifts of smaller value, certainly form a very respectable nucleus, around which we may hope thousands more will gather as the years roll on, and the great value of the institution makes its due impression on our ever liberal community. The fact that a mineralogical cabinet has been quietly contributed, shows plainly that there are people among us who devise liberal things even for poor Africans, so long shut out from all the lights of science. On the 23d of January, 1862, Liberia College was solemnly inaugurated,withappropriateceremoniesandaddresses. A procession, music, cheers, and congratulations; thanks for the past, high auguries for the future, these were the outward demonstrations of the occasion, such as the multitude could share. l3ut they only faintly expressed the feelings of the thoughtful, patriotic, pious souls who knew what success had cost, and who secretly breathed a Nunc dimittis as the joyful shouts went up to heaven. 120 LIBERTA COLLEGE. [July, Who could behold such an event with indifference? From this side of the ocean it looks sublime, marvellous in our eyes! To those immediately concerned, it must have seemed at once the reward of labor and the answer to prayer, the splendid proof of generous sympathy in friends beyond the sea, and a pledge of the Divine favor and protection to a race long down-trodden almost beyond the power of hope or faith. All honor to these dark-skinned citizens, and to their noble friends here among us! Founding a university, in a new country which is ripe and ready for such a boon, is rearing a temple in honor of all that is precious and dignified in intellectual pro- gress, and all that is purifying and exalting in our hopes for the future, or a great Pharos, to which men who love their country may raise hopeful eyes as they go sounding on their dim and perilous way. Who, in any land, can be grateful enough to those who build these strongholds of learning and religion? The simple ceremonies of inauguration were modelled, as is almost everything else in Liberia, upon those used in the United States. The Chief Justice officially delivered the keys of the edifice into the hands of the President of the College, Mr. J. J. Roberts, who was long the President of the Repub- lic, accompanying the transfer with some remarks, in the course of which he said While conflicting views were raging, and while many despaired of ultimate success or the realization of this happy boon, we are too happy that, with entire unanimity, we can thus congratulate ourselves, in view of the success thus gloriously achieved, and with united hearts and fraternal consent bring our offerings of differences, and thus deposit them upon the common altar of national union, to be consumed by the all-powerful principle of love, which has its abode in celestial regions. The sacrifice being acceptable to our Heavenly Benefactor, it will rise as sweet incense to the skies, to be returned only in such abundant blessing as shall eventually crown our united efforts to further this enterprise with more than ordinary success. What people on earth have better reasons to love each other and be united, than the people of Liberia? What people have suffered more than ourselves, takin~ into consideration all the past and present circumstances, to inaugurate a government upon the simple, heaven-born principle of mans right to claim, assert, and maintain his liberty? The negro born on American soil has, after years of toil and suf 1863.] LIBERIA COLLEGE. 121 fe ring, returned to his fatherland, without purse or scrip, without the precious gift which this college is intended to bestow, to battle against the prejudices of a wild country; hut, under these unfavorable circum- stances, he has taught the world that a man is a man, when he is al- lowed to try to show himself such The growth and prosperity of a people is certainly in proportion to its intellectual improvement; and the mind being thus cultivated, it is, as we are aware, more susceptible of the great saving truths of the Bible. It is, then, for the perfection of these high and lofty principles that this institution has its existence amongst us. Education has done a great deal, as you know, in all en- lightened countries; for, in consequence of its power being brought into contact with minds susceptible of its golden touch, mountains have poured forth rivers of wealth, the arid wastes have been made fertile, and from it has sprung the golden sheaf to make glad the hearts of faithful and scientific husbaudmen. Much, much more has been done in all countries by this powerful agency than by any other. Who will venture to compare now the great success achieved by the founder of the art of printing with that attained by the conqueror of the world? President Roberts, after a warm outpouring of gratitude to friends in the Old Bay State, whose hearts had been moved to recognize those claims of brotherhood that take no account of color or nation, mentioned the names of many who had been most prominent in advocating and aiding the establish- ment of a college in Liberia, and dwelt anxiously on the truly national character of the institution, its being intended for the use and benefit of all, to be administered apart and aloof from all sectarian or sectional preferences, all party or political favoritism. The plan of study was then sketched. It em- braces Intelleetnal and Moral Philosophy; the Greek and Latin Languages and Literatures; Mathematics ; Natural Philoso- phy; Jurisprudence and International Law; besides the Mod- em Languages and general literature. Mr. Roberts had some- thing to say of the usefulness of each of the principal branches of study, but argued especially against the prejudice enter- tained by many as to the study of the ancient languages. In some directions, I am aware, it has been urged that the time spent by students in equiring a knowledge of lan nages is time lost; as such acquirements, say these objectors, only tend, in a large majority of cases, to fill the minds of the young with an empty conceit of their VOL. XtDVJI.NO. 200. 11 LIBERIA COLLEGE. 122 [July, literary attainments, while such knowledge does not infuse that humble and cautious spirit which is fostered by sound learning, and is the char- acteristic of true philosophy. This view, however, obtains only in contracted minds. But all active, liberal, and highly cultivated minds agr ~e, that instruction in various languages, both ancient and modern, and especially a critical acquaintance with Greek and Latin, is indis- pensable to a polite and comprehensive education. And such is the view entertained by the patrons of this institution. For, indeed, a knowledge of languages, so I am impressed, is not only necessary, as the principal method by which one man shares in all the intellectual attainments of the rest of his species, but also constitutes a most exten- sive and curious science, which is intimately connected with the history both of nations and of man, regarded as a creature capable of progres- sive improvement, and which may be employed with the greatest ad- vantage to exemplify the conclusions of moral philosophy. Than the reading of Greek and Latin, says an eminent author, no employ- ments have been yet devised which are better fitted to exercise any intellectual power, whether memory, judgment, or imagination. Hence it must be desirable to every lover of literature and science, that that system of education should be pursued which unfolds the various fac- ulties of the mind so as to prepare it for all those eflbrts and investiga- tions by which all difficulties are surmounted. The next speaker was the Rev. Edward W. Blyden, Profes- sor of the Greek and Latin Languages and Literature. His discourse was principally devoted to the advocacy of those pursuits which form his especial province. This is an auspicious day for Liberia and for West Africa. The first college edifice erected on this benighted shore has been completed; and we, descendants of Africa, are assembled to inaugurate it. Perhaps this very day, one century ago, some of our forefathers were being dragged to the hold of some miserable slaver, to enter upon those hor- rible sufferings of the middle passage, preliminary to their introduc- tion into scenes and associations of deeper woe. To-day, their descend- ants, having escaped the fiery ordeal of oppression and slavery, and havin~ returned to their ancestral home, arc laying the foundation of intellectual empire, upon the very soil whence their fathers were torn, in their ignorance and degradation. Strange and mysterious providence It is among the most fortunate circumstances connected with the founding of Liberia, that schools of a high order, and now a college, should be established in this early period of her history. It is impos 1863.] LIBERIA COLLEGE. 123 sible to maintain our national independence, or grow in the elements of national prosperity, unless the people are generally imbued with a proper sense of their duties and responsibilities as citizens of a free government. The duties which devolve upon the citizens of Liberia are as diversified and important as those which devolve upon citizens of larger nations and communities; and, in order to discharge those duties faithfully and successfully, we need all the fitness and qualifica- tion which citizens of larger nations possess. To say, as has been too often said, by persons abroad and by persons here, that the establish- ment of a college in Liberia at present is premature, is to set aside the experience of older countries, and to ignore the testimony which comes to us from a hundred communities far in advance of us, showing the indispensableness of institutions of a higher order to send down, through all the ramifications of society, the streams of wholesome and elevating influence De Tocqueville informs us that, before the colony that landed at Plymouth was as old as Liberia, there were laws enacted establishing schools in every township, and obliging the inhabitants, under pain of heavy fines, to support them. Schools of a superior kind were founded in the same manner in the more populous districts. The municipal authorities were bound to enforce the sending of children to school by their parents. It is certainly a very remarkable fact, that in New England, by the time the first child horn in the colony had reached a proper age for admission to college, a college was established. They did not wait to have all those preparations which some have fancied are necessary before Liberians can reap the benefit of a college. We are informed that the forests were yet standing; the Indian was still the near neighbor of the largest settlements; the colonists were yet dependent on the mother country for the very necessaries of life; and the very permanence of their settlements was a~ yet undecided, when they were erecting high schools and colleges. They did not regard it as too early to provide for the thorough education of their children. They had left their fatherland to seek an asylum of liberty on those distant shores, and they well knew that intelligence was indispensable to the enjoyment and maintenance of true liberty. The Professor then entered upon a warm defence of classical studies, a defence which one reads as in a dream, asking, Is this a black man, speaking to other black men, escaped slaves, those stupid, toil-worn creatures, accustomed to be driven and castigated like beasts of the field? Rev. Alexander Crummell, a full black, whom we have 124 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, before mentioned as a graduate of Queens College, Cam- bridge, England, is Professor of Intellectual and Moral Phi- losophy, and, for the present, of the English Language and Literature. He was in the United States, on business for the College, at the time of the Inauguration, so that no address of his on that occasion is to be recorded. But we have several of his productions before us, and fiuid them invariably charac- terized by good sense, practical knowledge, plain speaking, and the warmest desire for the improvement of his people. Being invited by the citizens of Maryland County, Cape Palmas, to deliver an address on July 26, 1860, the anniversary of Libe- rian independence, instead of imitating the spread-eagle~ style of our Fourth-of-July orations, he gave his hearers a well- considered address on The English Language in Liberia, a discourse curious and interesting in many points of view. He dwells on the strange spectacle of an organized negro commu- nity, republican in form, possessed of Christian institutions and civilized habits, yet in color, race, and origin identical with the masses of rude natives around them, these people speaking this refined and cultivated language, which beyond the bounds of Liberia is fast supplanting the meagre African dialects, conquering wherever it penetrates, by mere force of excellence. Within a period of thirty years, thousands of heathen children have bccn placed under the guardianship of our settlers. Many of these have forgotten their native tongue, and know now the English language as their language. As a consequence, there has sprung up, in one gen- eration, within our borders, a mighty army of English-speaking natives, who, as manhood approached, have settled around us in their homes from one end of the land to the other. Many of these take up the dialect of the other tribes in whose neighborhood their masters lived, but even then English is their speech. Thus it is, that everywhere in the Republic, from Galhinas to Cape Palmas, one meets with a multi- tude of natives who have been servants in our Liberian families, and are daily in the utterance of English. With a population of fifteen thousand emigrants from this and other lands, the number is in fact more than doubled by the constant influx of native Africans from the contiguous country; and the ability and firmness with which these say- 1863.] LIBERIA COLLEGE. 125 ages are kept in order, and the sagacity shown in providing for their effective and inexpensive training, not only in ordinary business, but also in letters, is truly admirable. Each Liberian family becomes in some sort a missionary teacher, taking into its service one or more of the natives as domestics, and giving instruction which we are assured is most eagerly sought and appreciated. Some amusing anecdotes are told of these heathen guests of the nation. We have received many thousands of recaptured slaves, who are distributed among the families of the colony. It is a great question which arises, Are these men going to be amalgamated with us, or are they going to outnumber us and sink us to their own level? Two years ago a large number of this class was recaptured in the slaver Echo, and brought to Liberia. Twenty were sent to one family, and twenty to another, and thus they were disposed of. Those who were taken to Cape Palmas were first washed, then put in a house, and afterwards placed under the instruction of a schoolmaster. The next Sunday after their arrival they were brought in a body to the Episcopal church. They took their seats very quietly, and after the service was over they returned to the school. Since then they have attended church very regularly. They are quiet, peaceable, industrious men. No vestiges of idolatry such as fetichism, obeahism, or devil-worship have ever been observed among them, and they have embraced the Christina faith. They have now become citizens of the Republic. They have been enrolled among her soldiers, and they can perform their duties with as much i)recision as the others. There is nothing which does so much for civilizing a man as putting a gun into his hands. It makes a savage into a man directly. Among the recaptured Africans were two men who exhibited pecu- liar signs of industry, and two of the colonial women noticed them. One of these women frequently stopped and spoke to one of the men, and fancying that he would make her a good husband, she did what is sometimes done in leap-year in this country, she courted him, and took him before a magistrate and married him. Two years ago he was a savage! His master missed him from his usual employment, went in search of him, and at last found him. He took him before a magis- trate and said, I want this man. But the mans wife said, You cant have him! But he s my apprentice, rejoined the master. But he s my husband, replied the wife. The result of the trial was, that the lady was victorious, and carried off her husband in triumph. On the St. Pauls, numbers of recaptured slaves are apprenticed 11* 126 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, out, and the minister of that place told me that his church, which had previously been almost deserted, is now well filled with these recap- tured Congoes. Two houses are now being erected for the use of them; and from what I have seen of them, I have no doubt they will become good citizens of our country. Already the young negroes refuse to speak their own language, and talk the English lan~uage instead. To give you a proof that the recaptured Africans soon acquire a taste for the habits of civilized life, I may mention an instance which occurred in the family of Judge James. He had taken two recaptured females into his house as servants, and after they had lived there for a few months, he took two others. But the first two refused to associate or eat with the second two, and said they were not civilized enough. But by and by the second two became brightened up, and were then permitted to associate with the others. Some time afterwards other two recap- tured females were taken into the house, and not only the first two, but the second two also, refused to associate with them, and on precisely the same grounds. I mention this to shoxv you bow plastic the nature of the negro is, and how easily they can he raised up to become good citizens and Christian men and women. The knowledge of English spreads faster than the knowledge of Christianity, it is true, yet that follows in due time. Pro- fessor Crummdll proposes some plans by which this desirable result may be accomplished. It is not to be denied, lie says, that a naked savage will speak and write good English, yet preside at devil-dances and other heathen abominations. It is no uncommon thing to find boys well able to read aiid write English who have not yet learned to wear clothes. But lie thinks that the great desire which the pagaiis have to ac- quire tue language which is to them the key to wealth and power, will put into the hands of Liberia the means of in- ducing them to assimilate themselves to the colonists in the still more important matters of general civilization, and the relinquishment of their abominable rites. The chief point is the English language. This language is des- tined to get the mastery all along the coast of Africa from Sierra Leone to the Bight of Benin. Literature is quite common among us. If yon go into our houses you will find Shakespeare and Milton, Bacon and Bunyan; or you may find some such ambitious work as Guizots His- tory of Civilization, or Bancrofts History of America. You will find the American poets, Dana, Bryant, Lon0fellow, Lowell, and all the 186g.] 127 other great poets of this country ; and when the English steamer ar- rives, you will see heaps of literature, fresh from the English market. You will see the Eclectic and Quarterly Reviews, the Bibliotheca Sacra, and all the other principal periodicals, the Illustrated London News, the New York Tribune. Not only do you find these papers in the hands of the people of Liberia, but many of the people of the inte- rior have been instructed by them. The Methodist, Episcopal, and Baptist denominations have had missionaries in the country, and they have done a great deal of good. Some of the teachers in their schools are native Africans, and many of them are engaged in teaching the English language. In teaching the classes of Arithmetic and Euclid, I have had no difficulty. In Euclid the aborigines are quite equal to the best of my own school, and with regard to reading and committing to memory, there was one who sat first in his class. At every mission there is a school, and in some places two or three, and in these schools you will find just the same school-hooks which are used in this country. Besides the common schools we have several high schools and academies. There is a High School at Cape Palmas of which I have been Principal for the last three years. These schools are attended by native children as well as the children of emi- grants, and all through Liberia there is hardly a family which has not three, four, or five native children, whose fathers have brouTht them from the interior to receive an education So many large Ameri- can and English vessels pass along the coast for trading purposes, the natives wish to have one member of each family who can talk the Eng- lish language, in order that they may be able to traffic with them, and hence theysend them to school to learn it. And now a college is in course of erection, and will he completed next year. One result will he that the native chiefs along the coast, instead of sending their sons to England, Scotland, or Holland, to be educated, will send them to Liberia. A curious story is told of the value of a knowledge of Eng- gush. A man sold his sou to a slave-trader, the laws allowing him to do so. But the boy understood and spoke English well, and he insinuated to the purchaser that his father, being ma- ture and strong, would he a much more efficient laborer than himself, and that they had better take him, which they did, to the affectionate parents great discomfiture. The father pleaded that the law did not allow the selling of a father by the son, but the traders took him, and paid the purchase-money to the eon. LIBERIA COLLEGE. 128 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, Mr. Crummell has been indefatigable in his labor~ for his adopted country, travelling, preaching, and writing on various topics connected with the welfare of the rising state. One of his productions is an admirable paper on The Relations and Duties of Free Colored Men in America to Africa, a pam- phlet of fifty pages, in which he argues anxiously the point of nationality, and sets forth not only considerations of duty, but the immense advantage to themselves which would ensue if the colored men of character and property in this country would try the new world into which their less fortunate brethren have ventured under the pressure of unhappy circumstances. He speaks modestly in offering advice on a point so important, but he speaks from experience and observation, and weighs his words carefully. He had been an Episcopal clergyman in New York for some years, when he was urged to make a voy- age of observation to Liberia. This was some ten years ago. He was so well pleased with what he saw on arriving at Moii- rovia that he forthxvith took out naturalization papers, and from that day to this his whole soul has been devoted to the land of his new home. The pamphlet above mentioned con- tains some interesting statistics, particularly with regard to the growing commercial advantages of Liberia, the good success of Liberian merchants, and the increased culture of cotton, sugar, coffee, and other products much in demand. The large amount of property owned by free colored people in~this coun- try, a considerable portion of which is unproductive, owing to the terrible disadvantages nuder which they suffer, is urged ao a reason why they should transplant their means to a country where large returns await enterprise and industry. As a people, says Mr. Crummell, we are victimized in a pecu- niary point of view, as well as morally and politically; and as a consequence there is an almost universal dread of intrusting our moneys in the hands of capitalists and trading companies and stock; though, in great cities, large sums are put in sav- ings banks. There are few, however, who have the courage to take shares in railroad and similar companies, and in many places it could not be done. Speaking of the African Methodist Church, with its organ- ization, its bishops, its conferences, its Magazine, he says 1863.] 129 But the point to which I desire to direct your attention is the fact that they have built, and now own, some three hundred church edifices, mostly brick; and in the large cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, tbey are large, imposing, capacious, and will seat some two or three thousand people. The free black people of the United States built these churches ; the funds were gathered from their small and large congregations; and in some cases they have been known to collect, that is, in Philadelphia and Baltimore, at one collection, over one thousand dollars. The aggregate value of their property cannot be less than five million dollars. After treating of the various avenues of commercial profit lately opened in Liberia, Mr. Crummell proceeds to show that the philanthropic results of the voluntary emigration of black men of ability and wealth to Liberia would also be very im- portant. The moral and philanthropic results would be equally if not more notable. The kings and tradesmen of Africa, having the demonstration of negro capacity before them, would hail the presence of their black kinsmen from America, and would be stimulated to a generous emula- tion. To the farthest interior, leagues and combinations would be formed with the men of commerce, and thus civilization, enlightenment, and Christianity would be carried to every state and town and village of interior Africa. The galling remembrances of the slave-trade on the coast and of slavery in America would quicken the blood and the brain of both parties; and every wretch of a slave-trader who might visit the coast would have to atone for his temerity by submitting to the rigid code framed for piracy. And when this disturbing and de- structive hinderance to African progress was once put down, noble cities, vast agricultural establishments, the seeds of universities, and ground- work of church organizations, would sprin~ up all along the banks and up the valley of the Niger In Liberia, we have the noblest opportunities and the greatest ad- vantages. We have a rich and varied soil, inferior, I verily believe, to but few, if any, on the globe. We have some of the proofs, and many of the indications, of varied and vast mineral wealth of the richest qualities. We have a country finely watered in every section by mul- titudinous brooks and streams, and far-reaching rivers. We have a climate which needs but be educated and civilized and tempered by the plastic and curative processes of emigration, clearances, and scientific farming, to be made as fine and as temperate as any land in the tropics can be. LIBERIA COLLEGE. 130 LIBERIA COLLEGE. [July, On this soil have been laid the foundations of republican institu- tions. Our religion is Protestant, with its characteristic tendencies to freedom, progress, and human well-being. We are reaching forward as far as a young and poor nation can to a system of common schools. Civilization, that is, in its more simple forms, has displaced ancestral paganism in many sections of the land, has taken permanent foothold in our territory, and already extended its roots among our heathen kin. Our heathen population, moreover, in the immediate neighborhood of our settlements, is but small and sparse; thus saving our civilization from too strong an antagonism, and allowing it room, scope, and oppor- tunity for a hardy growth in its more early days. Active industry is now exhibiting unwonted vigor, and begins to tell upon commerce and the foreign market. Now when you consider that all these elements, humble as indeed they are, are our own, that we are the creature and dependent of no foreign government, you will agree with me, I think, that men who have families will act wisely in looking narrowly at onr advantages, ere they place themselves in circumstances where the moral elements of life and society are more rude, and where the formation agen cyand influence will belong to some foreign power. That these elements are slow in growth and expansion, is true; but this, it will be remembered, furnishes probability of their being sure and permanent As yet, we are but parvenus in the intellectual world. Our great- ness lies in the future; as yet we have not secured it. Nevertheless American black men have done, and are now doing, enough to chal- lenge respect. When American black men are ably editing literary journals, publishing respectable newspapers, issuing from the press volumes of sermons, writing scientific disquisitions, venturing abstruse Theories of Comets, and sending forth profound Vital Statistics, vexatious alike to opposing statesmen and divines; they so far vindi- cate their mental power and ability, as to make it manifest, that, under better circumstances, in a clear field, they could Move and act In all the correspondences of nature, with force, and skill, and effect. But we must break off our citations, intended to show what black men can say and do, are saying and doing. An cx- position of the commercial resources of Liberia would tend to illustrate the prospects of the new College and to encourage the hopes of its patrons, but our space forbids the introduction 1863.] LIBERIA COLLEGE. 131 of a theme which could not be fitly presented in few words. The commercial treaty with the United States long sought, but only recently confirmed is an important advance for Liberia, and will, we may hope, grow more and more impor- tant to her as her resources increase. The present dearth of paper-making materials has brought into notice the Liberiau products which may be turned to this important use, no less than six of which were offered at the great London Exhibition of the present year. There are machines already invented by which every one of these species of fibre can be quickly pre- pared for the market, and paper-stock needs only to be offered to command the very highest price. Here, then, is a very important, valuable, and profitable article added to the already long list of Liberian commercial treasures. Without paper, says the New York Evangelist, civilization would almost stop; it would be peculiarly appropriate could Africa, on the borders of which civilization now stands, supply us with that which we need to make her progress sure and rapid. In the present anxious and agitated condition of our free colored people, hardly able to enjoy their new-found liberty for thinking what they shall do with it, it seems only kind to them to remind them how many and how eligible modes of making their talents, their ingenuity, their industry, and their money availing exist beyond the competition of unscrupulous white men, in a land where the presence of cultivated colored people is the greatest possible boon next to liberty itself. We shall conclude what we have to say at present with a suggestive extract from an article in the London Quarterly Review, on African Discoveries. Africa may in one sense be defined as the continent of the future. At least seven eighths of the enormous area of one of the largest divis- ions of the globe have yet to acquire even the rudiments of true civil- ization. Although forming so considerable a portion of the earth, Africa has bcen almost entirely neglected by the nations of modern Europe since the discovery of America. They directed their attention and their enterprise almost exclusively towards the new regions which were so unexpectedly revealed. The tide of colonization long flowed in an un- interrupted stream to the West, where the hope of easy conquests and the expectation of bo rndless wealth attracted the most ambitious and 1~2 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, energetic spirits of the are. If Columbus could have foreseen the effect which his great discoveries would have upon a large portion of the hu- man race, the piety and humanity of the great navigator would certainly have recoiled from the spectacle. It is a melancholy reflection, that one of the continents of the Old World should owe by far the greater part of its sufferings to the discovery of the New. The colonists and con- querors of America, having used up an immense proportion of the pop- ulation in compulsory toil, turned to the opposite continent for a supply of their industrial wants. The robust natives of Africa were found to be specially fitted for labor in hot countries, and the petty sovereigns of the coast were soon instructed in the art of replenishing their treas- uries by the sale of their subjects, who were exported by hundreds of thousands to the remote and unknown regions of the West. Thus one quarter of the earth has been left a prey to a rapacity and violence disgraceful to humanity. Truly, The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the chil- drens teeth are set on edge! Awr. V. 1. Life of Samuel Kirkland. By SAMUEL K. Lo- THROP, D. D. SPARKSS American Biography. Second Se- ries. Vol. XV. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. 1855. 2. ilieniorial of the Semi- Centennial Celebration of the Found- ing of Hamilton College, Glinton, N. Y. Utica: Ellis H. Roberts. 1862. Svo. pp. 2~2. TuE recent literary festival at Hamilton College has awak- ened a new interest in the men who were specially concerned in founding that institution. Chief among these was the Rev. Samuel Kirkland, the larger part of whose life was spent in endeavors to Christianize the Indians of Central New York, and to introduce among them the benefits of modern civiliza- tion. He was not permitted to witness as large success as he had hoped; yet few men have labored more faithfully than he, and few have achieved, under like circumstances, more impor- tant results. His life covers the period of our Revolution; lie was officially connected with some of the leading men and events of his day; and his relations to the central college of

1~2 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, energetic spirits of the are. If Columbus could have foreseen the effect which his great discoveries would have upon a large portion of the hu- man race, the piety and humanity of the great navigator would certainly have recoiled from the spectacle. It is a melancholy reflection, that one of the continents of the Old World should owe by far the greater part of its sufferings to the discovery of the New. The colonists and con- querors of America, having used up an immense proportion of the pop- ulation in compulsory toil, turned to the opposite continent for a supply of their industrial wants. The robust natives of Africa were found to be specially fitted for labor in hot countries, and the petty sovereigns of the coast were soon instructed in the art of replenishing their treas- uries by the sale of their subjects, who were exported by hundreds of thousands to the remote and unknown regions of the West. Thus one quarter of the earth has been left a prey to a rapacity and violence disgraceful to humanity. Truly, The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the chil- drens teeth are set on edge! Awr. V. 1. Life of Samuel Kirkland. By SAMUEL K. Lo- THROP, D. D. SPARKSS American Biography. Second Se- ries. Vol. XV. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. 1855. 2. ilieniorial of the Semi- Centennial Celebration of the Found- ing of Hamilton College, Glinton, N. Y. Utica: Ellis H. Roberts. 1862. Svo. pp. 2~2. TuE recent literary festival at Hamilton College has awak- ened a new interest in the men who were specially concerned in founding that institution. Chief among these was the Rev. Samuel Kirkland, the larger part of whose life was spent in endeavors to Christianize the Indians of Central New York, and to introduce among them the benefits of modern civiliza- tion. He was not permitted to witness as large success as he had hoped; yet few men have labored more faithfully than he, and few have achieved, under like circumstances, more impor- tant results. His life covers the period of our Revolution; lie was officially connected with some of the leading men and events of his day; and his relations to the central college of

1~2 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, energetic spirits of the are. If Columbus could have foreseen the effect which his great discoveries would have upon a large portion of the hu- man race, the piety and humanity of the great navigator would certainly have recoiled from the spectacle. It is a melancholy reflection, that one of the continents of the Old World should owe by far the greater part of its sufferings to the discovery of the New. The colonists and con- querors of America, having used up an immense proportion of the pop- ulation in compulsory toil, turned to the opposite continent for a supply of their industrial wants. The robust natives of Africa were found to be specially fitted for labor in hot countries, and the petty sovereigns of the coast were soon instructed in the art of replenishing their treas- uries by the sale of their subjects, who were exported by hundreds of thousands to the remote and unknown regions of the West. Thus one quarter of the earth has been left a prey to a rapacity and violence disgraceful to humanity. Truly, The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the chil- drens teeth are set on edge! Awr. V. 1. Life of Samuel Kirkland. By SAMUEL K. Lo- THROP, D. D. SPARKSS American Biography. Second Se- ries. Vol. XV. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co. 1855. 2. ilieniorial of the Semi- Centennial Celebration of the Found- ing of Hamilton College, Glinton, N. Y. Utica: Ellis H. Roberts. 1862. Svo. pp. 2~2. TuE recent literary festival at Hamilton College has awak- ened a new interest in the men who were specially concerned in founding that institution. Chief among these was the Rev. Samuel Kirkland, the larger part of whose life was spent in endeavors to Christianize the Indians of Central New York, and to introduce among them the benefits of modern civiliza- tion. He was not permitted to witness as large success as he had hoped; yet few men have labored more faithfully than he, and few have achieved, under like circumstances, more impor- tant results. His life covers the period of our Revolution; lie was officially connected with some of the leading men and events of his day; and his relations to the central college of 18(33.1 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. 133 the Empire State were such as to merit for him an honorable record among the friends of Christian learning. At the celebration above referred to, an historical discourse was delivered by President Fisher, in which he recounts the part taken by Mr. Kirkland in founding that institution. We avail ourselves of the new interest thereby awakened in the memory of this benevolent and heroic man, to give a detailed sketch of his life. Samuel Kirkland was born in Norwich, Connecticut, iDe- cember 1, 1741. His earliest ancestor, of whom any trace remains, was one John Kirkland, of Silver Street, London. The family, for several generations, held influential posts in society and in the Church. Miles Standish was one of his progenitors. Particular mention is also made of Daniel, his father, who was pastor of a church in Norwich, and is recorded as being a devoted minister, an accomplished scholar, a man of fine talents, of a ready wit, and an amiable disposition. Of the incidents of Samuels childhood and youth little is known. It may be supposed, however, that he was trained, like other Puritan boys of the time, to habits of industry and self-depend- ence. As Cotton Mather wrote of Thomas Hooker, so it may be said of him, that he was born of parents that were neither unable nor unwilling to bestow upon him a liberal education; whereunto the early, lively sparkles of wit observed in him did very much encourage them. His natural temper was cheerful and courteous ; but it was accompanied with such a sensible grandeur of mind as caused his friends, without the help of astrology, to prognosticate that he was born to be considerable. When about twenty years of age, we find him at the academy of IRev. Dr. Wheelock, at Lebanon; Connecticut, preparing for colle~e. Among his companions here were several Indian youth, with one of whom he studied the Mohawk dialect, and made a good degree of proficiency in it. He entered the Soph- omore Class at Princeton, where he maintained a high rank as a scholar. Here, if not at Lebanon, he entered upon the Christian life. At some time during his college course, he determined to spend his days in missionary service among the Indian tribes of the West; and when this purpose was once VOL. xcvILNo. 200. 12 134 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, formed, it gave a new impulse to his mind, and inspired him with fresh ardor in study. The Senior year in college seems to have been a little too long for his fervent zeal; since we find him starting off, sev- eral months before its close, on a tour of exploration and inquiry among the Seneca Indians in Western New York. Though not present to graduate with his class, he received the usual bachelors degree at Commencement. Young Kirk- land was now twenty-three years of age. The Senecas were the most remote of the Six Nations, if not the most powerful and warlike of them all. His undertaking was regarded by his friends as bold and hazardous. The journey thither was toilsom~ and difficult. No Protestant missionary had ever dwelt among this tribe; indeed, all proposals to enlighten and convert them had hitherto been scornfully rejected. Nothing daunted, our young apostle resolved to visit these sava6es, and, if he could persuade them to receive him, he meant to live among them as their teacher and spiritual guide. This en- terprise was doubtless undertaken by the advice of his patron and friend, Dr. Wheelock, and its expenses were defrayed out of funds deposited with him by certain benevolent gentlemen in Scotland. The journey thither, in view of all its circum- stances, is worthy of detailed recital. He started early in November, 1T64, attended by a young Mohawk Indian, and arrived on the 16th at Johnson Hall, the residence of Sir William Johnson, his Majestys Agent for Indian Affairs, near the present village of Johnstown, N. Y. Much to his regret, he was obliged to remain here until Janu- ary, for want of a suitable guide through the wilderness. But he did not spend his time in idleness or vain repining. Every day he gained some new information from his host touching the manners and customs of the Senecas, and soon acquired a good general knowledge of all the leading characters in the Six Nations. At length, two friendly Senecas, passing west- ward, offered to conduct him to their country. On the 17th of January, the party set out. The weather was severely cold, and the snow so deep that it was necessary to walk with snow- shoes. Besides this, each traveller had to carry a pack of clothes and provisions weighing upwards of forty pounds. 1863.] 135 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. It would have been a tine study for a painter, says Dr. Lothrop, his grandson and biographer, to watch his countenance, and trace its lines of high thought and holy purpose, as he turned his back upon Johnson Hall, the last vestige of civilization, and, amid the dreary desolation of winter, in company with two savages with whom he could hardly exchange a word, struck off into the forest on a journey of nearly two hundred miles. JVemoir, p. 24. He did not suffer as much hardship on this journey as he had expected. His companions opened with their hatchets the path before him, whenever it was obstructed ; they halted to rest, when he became weary; they chafed his limbs when they vere swollen by the friction and weight of the snow-shoes; and at night they made for him soft and fragrant beds of ever- green boughs. At Kanonwarohale, the chief village of the Oneidas, and at Onondaga, they were kindly treated, and in- vited to tarry; but, after a days rest at each place, they pressed forward until they reached Kanadasegea, the princi- pal village of the Senecas. The day after their arrival, a council was called to receive and hear a letter brought by Mr. Kirkland from Sir William, in which, among other things, he commended the missionary to their confidence, and enjoined it upon them to treat him with kindness and respect. The head-chief and a majority of his people received him with frank cordiality, though a few were silent and looked sullen. The sachem even adopted him into his family; of which ceremony the graceful forms and courtesies were truly remarkable, as the acts of savages who had learned little from the usages of civilized life. A Dutch trader, happening to stroll into the settlement the next day, acted as interpreter between the par- ties. It is remarkable that nearly every one who addressed the missionary began with this inquiry What put it into your mind to leave your fathers house and country, to come so many hundred miles to see Indians, and live among them? Did they suspect some sinister design, or were the poor crea- tures unable to appreciate his Christian philanthropy? Having been domiciled in a small family near the wigwam of the sachem, Mr. Kirkland applied himself to learning the language, and acquainting himself with the habits of the peo- ple. For a time everything went on smoothly. But lo! in 136 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, a few weeks his host died suddenly in the night. What means this ? inquired the superstitious red men. Some of his enemies avowed that he had cansed this death by magic; others, that the Great Spirit was angry because they had per- mitted the strange teacher to come among them; and they clamored for his life. A council was called to consider this matter, and held its sessions for six days. At first the result seemed doubtful. On the third day, one of his friends, appre- hensive as to the issue, put a gun into his hands, and led him into the woods, as if for hunting partridges, but, in reality, to conceal him in a distant and secret hut until the public ex- citement should pass over. At length, after long deliberation, the missionary was acquitted, and restored to general confi- dence. Several days after the dispersion of the council, the chief took Mr. Kirkland aside, and observed to him, quite naively, that some Indians were afraid of writing, as it would speak for a great many years afterward, and that, whenever he wrote to Sir William, therefore, it would be good for him to call several of the chiefs together, and interpret to them what he had written: this would please them, and make their hearts glad. The young missionary was shrewd enough to see that this speech was designed to prevent his writing to Mr. Johnson an account of the late difficulty. They were heartily ashamed of it. A speech of one of the leading men in this council (as afterwards reported to Mr. Kirkland) ran thus: This white skin whom we call our brother has come upon a dark design, or he would not have travelled so many hundred miles. He brings the white peoples book. They call it Gods holy book. Brothers, attend! You know this book was never made for Indians. The Great Spirit gave us a hook for ourselves. He wrote it in our heads. This speech became inflammatory as it went on, and closed with a demand for the white mans blood. The widow of the deceased was then called to testify whether this priest did not carry with him some magical powders: Did he never come to the bedside, and whisper in your hus- bands ear, or puff in his face? No, never, replied the honest woman; he always sat or lay down on his own bunk; and in the evening, after we were in bed, we could see him get 1863.] SAMUEL KIRKLAND. 13T down on his knees and talk with a low voice. Whether this testimony to his pious integrity, or the fear of incurring Sir Williams displeasure, had most influence upon their decision, we care not now to inquire. In March and April of the following year there was a great scarcity of food among the Senecas and the adjoining tribes. Not only was their stock of corn exhausted, but game of all sorts became scarce, and for a time nothing but roots and nuts kept them from starvation. Expeditions were sent out in various directions for supplies, one of which, to the Mohawk valley, headed by Mr. Kirkland, came back loaded with food and blankets. As soon as he had mastered the language so as to speak it, he went from village to village, instructing the people in religion. He saw, indeed, that many suspicious eyes were fixed upon him, and that in some breasts the old hatred was still burning; but he hoped to outlive this preju- dice, and so kept on at his work as if unconscious of danger. A single incident, illustrating the cherished malignity of some of the Indians, may not be out of place. Returning, one summers day, from a neighboring settlement on the lake shore, singing hymns as he went, and talking to his favorite pony, he espied an Indian skulking through a neighboring thicket, and picking the flint of his gun, as if preparing to fire. A moments glance showed him that this was one of his old enemies, a vindictive and ferocious fellow, capable of any deed of savage cruelty. Assured that this man was intent on destroying his life, he yet rode on, betraying no sign of fear. Stop! stop! shouted the Indian. Mr. Kirkland replied, as if misunderstanding him, I have been over on the other side of the lake, meanwhile quickening his horse luto greater speed. Shortly afterward, he turned his head enough to see that the murderer had raised his gun to his shoulder. In a moment more, he heard the snap of the lock. The gun missing fire, the savage again bade him halt; but he pushed on, though expecting every instant to feel the bullet in his back. The click of the missing lock again reached his ear, and now he spurred his horse into a full run, and ere- long reached home unharmed. What transpired subsequently we are not informed, except that this man, convinced th t the 12* 138 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, Great Spirit loved the missionary with a special love, and guarded him from impending danger, came and humbly begged his pardon, and thenceforward remained his stanch friend. After Mr. Kirkland had spent a year and a half among the Senecas, a period full of hardship and danger, he re- turned to New England to receive ordination. Arriving at Lebanon, he was formally set apart to the work of the minis- try, and was at the same time appointed Indian missionary under the charge of the Connecticut Board of the Scottish Missionary Society. It will be observed that he had pursued no prescribed curriculum of theological study; his teachers in divinity had been the experiences of eighteen months among the sons of the forest. Yet he had not wholly neglected books. No small part of the load which he and his guides carried in their knapsacks through the wilderness consisted of choice treatises on Biblical learning. After his ordination, the Mis- sionary Board decided against his return to the Senecas, and commissioned him, instead, to the Oneidas, who were some- what central among the Six Nations, and seemed more willing than any other tribe to receive instruction. Mr. Kirkland, from first to last, regarded them as the noblest portion of the confederacy. Brave and fierce in war, they yet were gener- ous, hospitable, and benevolent in social life. Plainly, too, they were not wanting in shrewd and nice discernment of character, since they styled the white man a knife-man, in allusion, doubtless, to the favorite recreation of our whit- tling ancestors. The name of this tribe signifies the upright stone. There was standing, until recently, in the town of Stockbridge, Oneida County, N. Y., an upright stone or rock of considerable size, which was reputed to be the national altar. For many ages so it was believed the people had assembled here annually to celebrate a grand festival in honor of the Great Spirit. Hence they became known as the Onci- das, or the tribe of the upright stone. This stone has lately been removed to a prominent position within the gates of Forest Hill Cemetery at Utica. In July, 1766, Mr. Kirkland started for this new field, and erelong arrived at Kanonwarohale, the principal village of the 1863.] SAMUEL KIRKLAND. 139 tribe, situated near what is now known as Oneida Castle. Intending to make this a permanent residence, he built for himself a log-house, doing much of the work with his own hands. He soon formed plans and commenced labors for the good of his new parish, plans and labors which were not wholly in vain. Thus occupied, he spent three years of useful activity, not sinking under bodily privations and discomforts, nor discouraged by the indifference or opposition of the natives, but toiling onward with a cheerful faith, instructing the igno- rant, restraining the vicious, and declitring to all the unknown God whom they ignorantly worshipped. In the spring of 1769, his hardships had so worn upon his health that his friends urged him to rest awhile and to visit New England. This was just what he needed. The summers recreation on his native hills restored him, and before the autumn set in he was ready to return to his post of duty. But is it strange that he now began to think it not good for a missionary to be alone? Several years before this, his correspondence betrays, now and then, a touch of the tender passion. To his friend, Dr. Wheelock, he writes thus: I thank you, reverend sir, for the frequent mention of a certain name in your letters, which is very agreeable in this rough, unhewn part of the world; and I can assure you the person would be much more so, were I in a proper situation for the sweetest joy of life. But farewell to that for the present. His circumstances having now somewhat improved, he sought and won in mar- riage the hand of Jerusha Biugham, a niece of Dr. Wheelock. Our narrative must not linger to follow the happy pair in their boat-passage up the Mohawk River, and their horseback tour through the woods to Oneida, his wife on a pillion behind her husband. Nor can we dwell upon his enlargement of his log-house to the dimensions of sixteen feet square, making it quite a spacious and stylish residence for the time and place. This, however, should be said, that Mrs. Kirklands presence among the Indians was immediately felt, diffusing a spirit of order, industry, and purity on every side, and improving the dress and manners of both men and women. Her husband, too, engaged in his work with new energy. His schools flourished, intemperance was checked, the Sabbath was better 140 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, observed, and not a few persons appeared truly reformed in heart and life. At this very day, there are families amon the descendants of the Oneida tribe at Green Bay, Wisconsin, who trace back the respectability and virtue of their ancestors to the labors of the missionary at this period. In the year 1770 Mr. Kirkland transferred his relations from the Scottish Board of Missions to the London Society, whose correspondents resided in Boston. He also now in- terested himself more in the material prosperity of the Onci- das. A saw-mill, a grist-mill, and a blacksmiths shop were built the same year, with a substantial school-house and church. Then oxen were purchased, and farming utensils in considerable variety. During the next year Mrs. Kirkland became the happy mother of twin sons, whom the parents named George Whitefield and John Thornton. The Indians were greatly rejoiced at this event: they adopted the boys into their tribe with a gleeful ceremony, and gave them significant and high-sounding names. The following summer and winter Mrs. Kirkland spent at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, intending to return in the spring. But when that season came, such disturbances had arisen among the Six Nations, with the pros- pect also of war between the Colonies and the mother country, that Mr. Kirkland thought it prudent to purchase a house for her in Stockbridge, where she could remain with her children in safety. Now begins a turbulent period in the life of our missionary. Sir William Johnson having died, his son, Colonel Guy John- son, was made Superintendent in his stead. Another king arose who knew not Joseph. In every possible way he showed hostility to him and the objects of his mission. A sturdy royalist, he tried to array the Indians against the colonists. A bigoted Churchman, he hated Mr. Kirklands Puritanism, and reviled his clerical pretensions before the natives, affirm- ing that he and all the other New England ministers were not true ministers of the Gospel, and that they held to dangerous doctrines. You Indians, he declared with much warmth, ought to pray only according to those forms which the King has set forth in the prayer-book, and you must learn the responses. The angry Colonel did not carry his 1863.] SAMUEL KIRKLAND. 141 point. The natives summoned a council, in which they re- solved to send him a belt of wampum and a messenger to make a speech defending the missionary and deprecating all inter- ference with his work. At the same time, they paid due re- spect to the position and dignity of the Colonel. This firm yet temperate and reasonable course had the desired effect. During the Revolutionary war, which now began, we have no full or connected account of Mr. Kirklands life. His labors as missionary and teacher were much interrupted by the efforts of the royalists to enlist the Indians against the Colonists. During this period of agitation, he was often absent from Oneida, now serving as chaplain in the Continental army, and then engaged by appointment of the government in en- deavors to hold the Six Nations in a state of neutrality. In this latter capacity he took long journeys in various directions to attend councils among the different tribes. For a time his exertions promised success, but the persistent efforts of Joseph Brant, Colonel Johnson, and other British agents, were too much for hfm. The Oneidas and Tuscaroras remained firm; but the Mohawks, Senecas, and others wavered, and then fell away. Every reader of American history is familiar with that bloody page which recounts the descent of St. Leger, at this time, from Oswego, with a large body of Indians, attacking Fort Schuyler (now Utica), and ravaging no small part of the valley of the Mohawk. At these scenes of violence, the Oneidas and Tuscaroras became greatly excited. Like all other savages, they delighted in war. To keep the peace, as the Colonists desired, was the hardest thing that could be de- manded of them; they wanted to fight on one side or the other. After two years of impatient neutrality, General Schuyler gratified them by allowing a few hundred warriors, headed by the famous Oneida chief, Skenando, to engage in certain special services. In the years 1777 and 1778, we find Mr. Kirkland at one time on short visits to his family; again at Oneida, endeavoring to cheer and control his people amid the troubles of the times; and again at various places, pro- curing information from friendly scouts of the movements of the enemy along our northern frontier. In 1779 he was brig- ade chaplain with General Sullivan, in his campaign on the Susquehanna. 142 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, On the return of peace, in 1784, he was reappointed a mis- sionary among the Oneidas. But he found, alas! that war had sown desolation in its track. It left the red men poor, their habits of industry broken up, their morals depraved, and their schools and churches almost forsaken. Yet he was not dis- couraged. He resumed his work with hopefulness and ardor. In the course of a year the affairs of his flock looked encour- aging. The natives became more intelligent, and showed a disposition to inquire into, and an ability to understand, the leading truths of Christianity. A Cayuga chief, who had heard favorable reports of the white priest and his Bible, came sixty miles to visit him. The origin of the Christian religion, the inspiration of the Scriptures, the law of God, the history of Christ, such high themes were the subjects of their conversa- tion. The sagamore admitted that Christianity was a pretty good sort of religion. But just as he was departing Satan put it into his heart to inquire why, if the Bible was so good a book, it had been so long withheld from heathen nations; and this he followed up with other questions of casuistry, among the rest, that old thorny perplexity, the origin of evil, all produced for the sake of debate and fault-finding. The missionary replied to these inquiries in an able manner, but feared that the chief went back to his tribe little benefited by his visit. A happier case was that of a venerable Indian, who had been quite a Pharisee, and was accounted one of the wisest men of his tribe, but who, after several discussions with Mr. Kirk- land, was convinced of the falsity and corruption of pagan- ism and of the truth and purity of Christianity, and then entreated his teacher to come and cast water on him in the name of Jesus. The conversion of this leading man was the beginning of a general reformation. For a period of seven months not an instance of intoxication was observed. In the three villages under Mr. Kirklands care upwards of seventy persons were believed to have become truly religious. Not seldom did he see persons in his congregation who had walked twenty and thirty miles to hear him preach. When the troublous period of the Revolution was over, Mrs. Kirkland had hoped to return to Oneida, to share with her husband in his privations and labors. But the want of schools 1863.] lAO SAMUEL KIRKLAND. and of suitable society for her children detained 11cr in Stock- bridge year after year. One of her sons, John Thornton, a name afterwards to become eminent in the Presidency of Harvard College, was sent to Phillips Academy, Andover, and thence, in due time, to Cambridge. The twin brother, George, was sent to Dartmouth College. In the year 1788, when the hopes and prospects of the family were very bright, the mother was taken away, a blow from which the chil- dren, as well as the husband and father, were slow to recover. In the summer of this year, Mr. Kirkland was directed by the Missionary Board to perform a tour among the other tribes of the Confederacy, in order to ascertain their real numbers, and to learn their desires in reference to missionaries and teachers. In connection with this, he was requested by the State gov- ernment to attend a council of chiefs and State Commissioners held at Buffalo Creek, for the transaction of important busi- ness. It was found that the Six Nations numbered about 4,850, exclusive of the Mohawks, who had left the Confed- eracy and settled north of Lake Erie; also, that they were not friendly to the proposal to send New England missionaries among them: at least, if any were sent, they insisted on having only such as would baptize the children of all parents, how- ever ungodly. It would seem that Mr. Kirklands services as interpreter and mediator in the council were highly valued by both parties. At the conclusion, the chiefs unanimously returned him their thanks for his friendly aid and advice.~~ The Commissioners also voted that, in consideration of the services rendered by tile Rev. Mr. Kirkland, two thou- sand acres of land shall be appropriated and given gratis to the said Mr. Kirkland, for the accommodation of his sons, or for such other purpose as he may think proper. * And at the close of this year, the State of New York and the indians conjointly made him a grant of valuable lands in Oneida County, amounting in all to about 4,760 acres. The tract, since known as Kirklands Patent, was two miles square, and lay on the west side of what is now styled the Property Line, its northeast corner being just outside the present park of Hamilton College. * This land lay in Ontario County. 144 SA~UEL ETRKLANIJ. [July, This year and the next find him busy in his appropriate work, yet not without troubles. His meetings were sometimes interrupted by noisy and drunken men. More than once plans were laid to take his life. One morning, a bloody tomahawk was found stuck in his door, an intimation that he must soon leave the neighborhood, or expect the tomahawk. French traders brought in Jesuit priests to combat his teachings and assail his reputation. But he bore his trials manfully, and his influence among the people was strengthened under every attempt to weaken it. During the summer of 1789, several head men of the tribe came to confer kvith him in reference to the condition and prospects of their nation. Earnestly, and sometimes tearfully, they spoke of their poor people, contrasting their lot with that of the whites. They could not help seeing that the English were increasing in numbers and power, while they were be- coming weaker; and, beholding this, they exclaimed The rivers and harbors which once received only a few canoes of ours are now crowded with the great ships of the white people! Where we had only a few smokes (wigwams), they have now great cities and lofty houses ! Lands which our forefathers so1d for a few pence could not now be purchased of the whites for a hundred or a thousand dollars! A lamentation which poetry has caught up and repeated They waste us, ay, like April snow, In the warm noon, we shrink away: And fast they follow, as we go Towards the setting day, Till they shall fill the land, and we Are driven into the western sea. As they dwelt upon this theme, their breasts would heave, and their eyes flash with sorrowful indignation. Why this difference? they exclaimed, in tones of piteous despair. Does not the curse of Heaven rest upon us for some old transgression, which we are powerless to remove, and which prevents our reformation and our prosperity? A strange superstition, indeed; yet, in these lamentations over their impending fate, what a touch of nobleness! Mr. Kirkland handled the matter wisely. He unfolded the influence of 1863.] SAMUEL KIRKLAND. 145 ignorance and vice, and of knowledge and virtue, respectively, on individual and national character; and he showed that herein, and not in any malediction of Heaven, lay the differ- ence between the lot of the Indians and that of the whites. He endeavored to cheer and encourage them, assuring them that by diffusing intelligence, and by cultivating habits of industry and virtue, they might hope to rise to a condition of comfort and prosperity. Among the records of the following summer, we note inti- mations that he was then giving much thought to a system of thorough education for the Indians of the Five Nations. He even went so far as to draw out his Plan in writing, and to submit it to the consideration of several leading civilians. These gentlemen expressed their approbation of his scheme, but did not think the time quite ripe for its execution. In the winter of 1791, the general government again sought his aid in conducting a negotiation between them and the con- federacy, the design of which was to strengthen their attach- ment to the and secure a more oeneral introduc- government, to tion among them of the arts of civilization. Washington felt a deep interest in this movement, and General Knox wrote to Mr. Kirkland more than once, expressing the high sense which the government entertained of his services, and urging him, if consistent with his other duties, to undertake this new labor. A hostile feeling had lately sprung up against the whites, and plans were maturing in secret to combine the whole confeder- acy and the Western tribes against the American government. Thanks to the missionarys great personal influence, and to his untiring exertions, this conspiracy was nipped in the bud. The Five Nations were induced to remain firm in their adhe- sion to the government, and eventually adopted some of the measures proposed for their improvement. Is it surprising that Mr. Kirkland n6w desired to gather the separated members of his family under one roof and under his own eye? With this in view, he cleared several acres of his landed property near Oneida, and built a house upon it. The removal of his effects having been accomplished under the charge of his son John Thornton, he plied his missionary work with all his accustomed zeal. During this year some friendly VOL. xcvII.No. 200. 13 146 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, hand presented his educational scheme to Congress, and it met with such favor that a yearly grant of $ 1,500 was voted, to aid in teaching the natives agriculture and some of the useful arts. In August, 1792, he attended the Commencement at Dart- mouth College, accompanied by an Oneida chief, named Onon- dego, whose remarkable presence attracted much attention. The Trustees and Faculty of the College paid marked respect to Mr. Kirkland during this visit. On Commencement day, President Wheelock addressed Onondego from the rostrum. A part of his response addressed to the graduating class ran as follows: My young brothers, I salute you. My very heart has been glad- dened by your pleasant voices. Although I understand but little of your language, I see marks of wisdom, and an enlarged mind, in many things you L ye said in your talks this day. This is the place for en- lightening the mind My young brothers, attend. In the world, there are many things which cause the unwary to step out of the ri~ht path. Hear what I say. Be watchful. Do not forget what you have learned. Never go out of the straight path. It has been marked out by the instructions of your chief Let every step in your future life show that you love peace and the true religion; and the Great Spirit will bless you. The light be~ins to break forth a little among us in yonder wil- derness. From Hanover they went to Boston and Cambridge. At the College, the chief became quite a lion to the under- graduates; his grave and crisp remarks on what he saw and heard pleased them not a little. The library, the chemical and philosophical apparatus, and the astronomical instruments, lilled him with wonder. As to the orrery, which he called the sun-moon-and-star machine, he feared he should not be able to describe it to lii~ nation, or that they would ridicule it as some magic-work. On leaving the town he expressed great delight and surprise that the wise men at Cambridge, with their knowledge of everything about the works of God, in creation and providence, could nevertheless turn their attention to the interests and happiness of poor Indians. Shortly after this tour in New England, Mr. Kirkland trans- ferred his residence from Oneida to his lands near the village 14~T 1863.] SAMUEL KIRKLAND. of Clinton. Here his children, five in number, grew to matu- rity. Here, too, he was married to Miss Mary Donnally, a respectable lady who had long resided in his family, and had charge of his children and household in Stockbridge. lilt was his wont to ride on horseback to his various preaching-places in the vicinity. On one of ihese tours through the woods, a small branch of a tree, which he was endeavoring to push aside, struck him in the eye. The blow was not so severe or painful as to prevent his going forward and fulfilling his engagements; but the injury proved to be serious and permanent. For sev- eral months he was unable to read or write, and his nervous system was much deranged. By the advice of his physician, he went to New York and Philadelphia to consult certain emi- nent oculists. He was the more readily inclined to undertake this journey because, in addition to the benefit to his health which he hoped to gain, it would give him an opportunity to confer with several leading men as to a further prosecution of his educational scheme. This scheme contemplated the pro- viding, first, of schools for young native children, in which they should be taught the rudiments of an English education. Three such schools had already been established. A second part of his plan involved the founding of a High School, or Academy, to be centrally situated, and contiguous to some settlement of whites, to which English youth were to be ad- mitted, bearing the charges of their own education, and a certain nnmber of older Indian boys, selected from the differ- ent tribes of the confederacy. These latter were to be in- structed, we now use Mr. Kirklands words, in the principles of human nature, in the history of civil society, so as to be able to discern the difference between a state of nature and a state of civilization, and know what it is that makes one nation differ from another in wealth, power, and happiness; and in the principles of natural religion, the moral precepts, and the more plain and express doctrines of Christianity. For the convenience of both parties, he proposed to place this institu- tion near what was then the boundary-line between the white settlements and the Indian territory. The scheme was well approved everywhere, but perhaps it found its warmest advo- cates among those intelligent families which had recently emi 148 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, grated from New England, and settled in the adjoining towns; for though they somewhat doubted its success so far as the Indians were concerned, they felt sure that it would be benefi- cial to the white population. On the journey of which we have spoken, he gave his first thoughts to the Academy. He sblicited and obtained subscrip- tions to its funds. He visited the Governor of the State, and the Regents of the University, and, with their co-operation, took the first steps toward procuring a charter, which was ob- tained the following year, 1793. Alexander Hamilton afforded him invaluable aid, as did also Colonel Pickering. At Phila- delphia he called upon General Washington, who expressed a warm interest in the welfare of the institution. Mr. Hamilton was one of the trustees mentioned in the petition for its incor- poration, and after him it was named the Hamilton Oneida Academy. Mr. Kirklands exertions did not end here. In April, 1793, he conveyed to the institution a valuable grant of land. This donation was made in connection with a subscrip- tion for erecting the academy building. On the table before us lies this orighial subscription-paper, now yellow and torn, on which he entered his first donation. It reads in this simple way: Sam1 Kirkland, 10. 0. 0. and 15 days work. Also, 300 Acres of Land, for the use and benefit of the Academy, to be leased, and the product applied towards the support of an able Instructor. This gift, with others from the friends of learning and relig- ion throughout the State, placed the Academy on a substantial footing. A commodious building was erected on the western hillside overlooking the infant settlement of Clinton, on the spot designated by Mr. Kirkland; an able Preceptor and an assistant were procured, and the doors opened for pupils. Hamilton Oneida Academy soon became widely known, and scholars flocked to it from every quarter. In his Historical Discourse, President Fisher, having re- marked upon the time at which the corner-stone of the Acad- emy was laid, thus pictures also the occasion The occasion is one of special interest. The chief statesmen of the nation, including the father of his country, have heard of and antici- pated it with that peculiar pleasure which belongs to far-seeing and 1863.] SAMUEL KIRKLAND. 149 patriotic minds, intent upon the production of those forces which were to mould the grand future of this young nation. It has gathered together the leading minds from a large section of the State. The men who moulded these communities into their present form, with not a few of the earnest, stalwart workers whose hands were to subdue the forests, are there. STEUBEN, the brave old warrior, who came, in our hour of trial, to discipline our rude soldiery and organize them into the effective battalions that beat back the invading hosts of England,~has come to perform one of the last and most notable and pregnant acts of his use- ful life, for the country of his adoption, to lay the corner-stone of an Institution which is to bear down into the future the name of his old compatriot in arms, one of the foremost statesmen of this or any other age. A troop of horsemen, commanded by a son of KIRKLAND, among whom were some who had mingled in the fight of Oriskany, and seen Cornwallis surrender his sword at Yorktown, occupy the outer circle as his escort, and symbolize the patriotism that is to be nourished here; a patriotism that in the hour of our countrys need will not shrink, sword in hand, from defending the nations rights, be the assailants ambitious foreign despots, or equally ambitious but more malignant traitors in our own land. Reclining partly on the grass and standing around is a company of the faithful Oneidas, among whom towers the venerable form of their Christian chief; the brave SKENANDOA: SKENANDOA, the friend of KIRKLAND, whose counsels in peace and war have kept them firm on one side through all the horrors of the Revolution; his head is now whitened by the snows of ninety winters; he looks in silence upon the scene, knowing that, whatever may betide his people, his own ashes will mingle with those of his Christian father, and his body ascend with his in the resurrection of the just. But there is still another the central figure of this company around whom clusters the chief interest; one whose noble heart prompted, whose intellect conceived, whose energy carried into execu- tion, the plan of founding this Institution. The name of SAMUEL KIRKLAND, although as yet, like that of CALVIN, no marble shaft designates the spot where his dust reposes, will live while yonder walls endure, and literature, science, and religion shall cherish the memory of those whose lives have been associated with their advancement in this land. Jlfemorial, p. 60. We cannot now pause to trace the history of this institution further than to record, that in the year 1812 it was raised to the rank of a college, and that from that time to the present it has enjoyed a fair measure of prosperity. 13* 150 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, The establishment of this seminary of learning, which had occupied so many of Mr. Kirklands thonghts for the fifteen years previous, was the last important act of his life. He con- tinued his missionary labors, but they were performed amid bodily infirmities and many increasing sorrows. He never recovered entirely from the injury of the eye. In the year 1795, he was thrown from his horse, and received a blow which aggravate& his other disorders. In short, he had overtasked his energies, by thirty years of toil and exposure, and it wer not strange that his health now broke down. And that he should slacken somewhat his labors among the Indians is not surprising, nor yet that he should neglect the details of some of the other interests committed to his keeping. Accord- ingly, we find that, in the year 1797, the Board of Commission- ers withdrew from him their appointment and support. They did not present full and satisfactory reasons for this summary procedure ; but they doubtless felt that, as he had become broken in health and spirits, and was somewhat engrossed in the care of his lands, a younger man could serve the society better. It is gratifying to know that his integrity was not impeached. Shortly after this, lie became involved in great pecuniary embarrassments through the failure of one of his sons; and close upon this calamity came the death of two of his children, Samuel and George. But the brave old man bore up under his heavy and complicated trials, evincing a patience and submission truly beautiful. In the year 1798 he received a visit from President Dwight of Yale College, and Jeremiah Day, then Tutor in the same institution. These gentlemen had started from New Haven for a vacation tour on horseback to Niagara Falls; but on reaching Utica, they heard such accounts of the difficulties and perils of the journey that they were constrained to abandon it. They, however, rode out to Clinton, to visit the missionary Kirkland and his infant seminary, and then returned to New England. During the remainder of his life, Mr. Kirkland continued to cherish a deep interest in the improvenient of the town where he resided, in the prosperity of the Academy, and in the welfare of the Indians. He bestowed several other gifts upon the institution, and in his death did not forget it. 186~3.] 151 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. With or without official appointment and salary, he regarded himself as missionary and friend to the natives, and he con- tinued to serve them while he lived. His death occurred in February, 1808, after a short but severe illness. His remains were carried to the village church in Clinton, where a sermon was preached by the Rev. Dr. Norton. A large assemblage of Indians, from far and near, convened on the occasion, and poured out bitter lamentations over his grave. The funeral address was interpreted to them by Judge James Dean, then resident Agent of Indian Affairs.* Mr. Kirkland seems to have been well adapted physically for the life of labor which he chose. In stature be was a little above the medium height, well proportioned, robust, and in his mature manhood inclining to stoutness. In man- ners he was simple, dignified, and courteous, not without a dash of bruskuess at times, yet thoroughly polite, a true gentleman of the old school. His urbanity came partly from native endowment, and partly from his frequent intercourse with eminent and cultivated men. On all public occasions he wore the clerical gown and bands, and, thus robed, pre- sented an imposing aspect. His portrait, prefixed both to Dr. Lothrops Memoir and to the College Memorial, repre- sents him as he appeared when about forty years of age, erect, vioorous, of commanding presence, with a penetrating eye, and an animated, buoyant expression, as if ready for ad- venture or the endurance of hardship. Had he possessed a feeble constitution, he could never have made those long and toilsome journeys, often on foot, through mud and snow, and sometimes in open boats; nor could he have sub- mitted to the hard fare of the savages, and been brought, not seldom, to the verge of starvation. Sonic of his survivors, who saw him in their youth, tell us that, when he was about sixty years of age, he looked like a hard-worn old man, one who had gone through the wars, and come out bronzed by Mention has already been made of his two sons, George Whitefield and Samuel Thornton. Of his daughters, the eldest, Jerusha, was married to John II. Lothrop, of Utica, N. Y., and died about two years ago. The next, Sarah, became the wife of Francis Amory, of Boston. Eliza, the youngest, was married to the late Ed- ward Robinson, then Professor in Hamilton College, and since a Biblical scholar of world-wide reputation. 152 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, exposure and well marked with bruises and scars. Only a man of great physical vigor could have endured so much and held out so long. It will not be claimed for him that he was gifted with extraordinary mental powers. We find no brilliancy of ira- agination, no exuberance of wit, no philosophical profoundness. But we meet with what is of more value, good, plain strength of intellect, ability to grasp large and small matters, solid judgment, rare executive talent, and an unconquerable will. He was a careful observer of men and of events. Early thrown upon his own resources, and disciplined by adversity, he became independent and self-sustained. His mind took on something of the freedom and rough grandeur of the scenes amid which his life was passed. It was no slight advantage for him to live in the stirring times of our Revolution, to wit- ness its first outbreak, to watch and help on its progress, and to greet its successful termination. In such scenes the mind often acquires a vigor and clearness which do not come from simply poring over books. He was by no means wanting in tender sensibility and gen- erous enthusiasm, and in humor and wit, though this latter trait was only a delicate vein running through his nature, and not perceptible to every eye. It took the form rather of airy sprightliness and genial pleasantry. He possessed a large fund of memorabilia; and the recital of these in his downright, hearty manner gave variety and raciness to his conversation. We do not hear that the Indians ever said of him, as the natives once did of a bookish Puritan, that he could whistle Greek; yet he was learned enongh to be an oracle to them, and his learning was practical, and ever at their service. To use an ancient figure, he was a tree of knowledge which carried its heavy-laden boughs so low that even children might pluck the golden fruit. He did not, like Jonathan Edwards, while missionary to the Stockbridge Indians, spend his leisure in composing theological treatises, but he gave all his time and thoughts to the well-being of his humble charge. He was made for a pioneer and for a worker in the common ways of life, and he used his talents wisely and effectively. His moral and religious character gave tone and direction 1863.] SAMUEL KII~KLAND. 153 to his whole career. While yet a youth, at Dr. Wheelocks school, his true spiritual life began, and he evinced the ear- nestness of his zeal by resolving at once to spend his days in missionary service among the Indians. He consorts with the dusky Seneca boys, that he may learn their manners and their strange tongue. From college halls his eyes look abroad with longing upon the Western wilderness, and he cannot wait for his bachelors diploma before he starts upon his first ad- venturous journey among the Iroquois. Nor does he sink under rough toil, or quail before persecution and threatened death. He does not, like David Brainerd, spend his time and exhaust his strength in torturing self-scrutiny and self-up- braiding and melancholy forebodings. No: he wisely learns that the best proof of love to God is to be found in hearty, joyous service for him. He suffers himself to be adopted into the family of an Indian, sleeps and eats in their smoky, squalid wigwams, becomes all things to them, if by any means he may save some. He imbues their children with the rudiments of education and religion, and to their sages he opens the higher wisdom of the Bible. He teaches agriculture and mechanics. He mediates between men at variance. He goes on long journeys to negotiate their affairs with the whites, and to keep them at peace with those who would embroil them in war. And does he not serve his country, too? Indeed, as we review the history of his life during the Revolutionary war, holding in friendly relations two savage tribes, and keeping close watch upon the movements of others, now acting as chaplain in the army, and at the conclusion of the war man- aging several difficult embassies between the natives and the whites for their mutual benefit, he seems to us deserving of no less honor from his countrymen than many a military hero crowned with blood-bought laurels. His plan for the education of the Indians is creditable alike to his head and his heart. He doubtless foresaw that mission- ary labors among them would be of little permanent value without education. The half-regenerated savage would relapse into barbarism as soon as the living preacher should be with- drawn. Desirous that his work should outlast his own life, he resolved to lay a solid basis in education. He wanted, 154 SAMUEL KIRKLAND. [July, moreover, to promote the social culture of the natives by bringing their children into daily association with those of white men. In this way he hoped to overcome the prejudices existing between the two races, and to bind them together in bonds of perpetual brotherhood. The conception of this plan must have been the fruit of those frequent and touching inter- views with Indian chiefs concerning the prospects of their race. These men saw that their decline was inevitable, unless some- thing were done to prevent it; and they came with sad hearts to their friend and teacher, imploring his help to save them from utter extinction. It seems as if his scheme were formed in fulfilment of some secret, holy vow to make one grand and mighty effort to stay their fall, and, if possible, to restore them to prosperity. Was it not a worthy endeavor? Had he done nothing more than this, he would be entitled to a high place among Christian philanthropists. It matters little that his plan did not accomplish all that he had hoped. A few natives only became members of his Acad- emy, and some of these pursued their studies but a short time. The careless freedom of life in the woods and the excitements of the hunting-ground were more attractive than the confinement and dull routine of the school-room. Yet of these few, and of the larger number trained in his primary schools, a goodly proportion became intelligent and virtuous men. To this day, their descendants, living in a Western State, revere and bless no iiame so much as that of Kirkland. But his scheme, so far as it related to the whites, was abun- dantly successful. The Academy flourished, and, as he had contemplated from the first, was soon raised to the rank of a College. He saw our day afar off, and was glad. The old landmark known as the boundary line of property between the whites aiid Indians has been almost swept away with the removal of the natives; but the College founded by his wis- dom and benevolence still stands, diffusing its light far beyond the territory occupied by the Six Nations. It has trained its thousand youths for professional and commercial life, and will doubtless continue to scud forth streams of healthful influence for many generations to com e~ 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 155 ART. VI. 1. The Autobiography of LEIGH HUNT. A new Edition by the Author; with further Revision, and an In- troduction by his Eldest Son. London: Smith, Elder, & Co. 1860. pp. xvi. and 412. 2. The Correspondence of LEIGH HUNT. Edited by his Eldest Son. With a Portrait. London: Smith, Elder, & Co. 1862. 2 vols. Small 8vo. pp. viii. and 333, 331. As the descendant of American parentage, as an author who for more than half a century occupied a conspicuous, if not a foremost, rank among the literati of England, as one who through a long life maintained a consistent adhesion to principles which, in his own country, are considered radical, but in ours liberal, as the friend of Shelley, Keats, and Laiub, and as a cheerful and genial companion in gloomy hours, Leigh Hunt seems to have no slight claim to our interest and attention. So quiet and even was the tenor of his life, and so disconnected, toward its termination, with either liter- ary or political discussion, that comparatively little is known of him on this side of the Atlantic; and we deem it no un- worthy task to bring him before our readers, now that he has so recently passed away. Of the volumes before us, the col- lection of letters has been issued from the press within a year; the Autobiography, improved and revised by the author from earlier editions, and enlarged by an account of his last days and death, by his eldest son, was put forth in 1860, within a year of the close of his life. We are somewhat disappointed in the letters, as they fail, we conceive, when read without a previous perusal of his other works, to give a true impression of the authors manner of composition, or the frame of his mind. The Autobiography, on the other hand, displays the actual man, admirably illustrating every strong and every weak point in his character, presenting a perfect key to his feelings and prejudices, and setting forth just such a person as a stady of his works would lead one to conjure up, namely, a sprightly, affectionate, restless, and yet timid and self-con- ceited man. The attention of the author was evidently con- centrated, in the composition of this work, on himself. His

1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 155 ART. VI. 1. The Autobiography of LEIGH HUNT. A new Edition by the Author; with further Revision, and an In- troduction by his Eldest Son. London: Smith, Elder, & Co. 1860. pp. xvi. and 412. 2. The Correspondence of LEIGH HUNT. Edited by his Eldest Son. With a Portrait. London: Smith, Elder, & Co. 1862. 2 vols. Small 8vo. pp. viii. and 333, 331. As the descendant of American parentage, as an author who for more than half a century occupied a conspicuous, if not a foremost, rank among the literati of England, as one who through a long life maintained a consistent adhesion to principles which, in his own country, are considered radical, but in ours liberal, as the friend of Shelley, Keats, and Laiub, and as a cheerful and genial companion in gloomy hours, Leigh Hunt seems to have no slight claim to our interest and attention. So quiet and even was the tenor of his life, and so disconnected, toward its termination, with either liter- ary or political discussion, that comparatively little is known of him on this side of the Atlantic; and we deem it no un- worthy task to bring him before our readers, now that he has so recently passed away. Of the volumes before us, the col- lection of letters has been issued from the press within a year; the Autobiography, improved and revised by the author from earlier editions, and enlarged by an account of his last days and death, by his eldest son, was put forth in 1860, within a year of the close of his life. We are somewhat disappointed in the letters, as they fail, we conceive, when read without a previous perusal of his other works, to give a true impression of the authors manner of composition, or the frame of his mind. The Autobiography, on the other hand, displays the actual man, admirably illustrating every strong and every weak point in his character, presenting a perfect key to his feelings and prejudices, and setting forth just such a person as a stady of his works would lead one to conjure up, namely, a sprightly, affectionate, restless, and yet timid and self-con- ceited man. The attention of the author was evidently con- centrated, in the composition of this work, on himself. His 156 LEIGH HUNT. [July, minuteness in the description of the most trivial incidents of his childhood and youth is almost always interesting, but occasionally becomes undignified and irksome. It must be confessed that in this respect he puts himself in danger of falling under that description of weakness which Sir William Hamilton, in his Metaphysics, predicates of a vulgar mind, which, he says, forgets and spares nothing, and is ignorant that all which does not concur to the effect destioys or weak- ens it. A good instance of this tendency in our author occurs, where, speaking of his timidity when a child, and his unwillingness to be alone in the dark, lie mentions a book in which he had seen a picture of some horrible monster that had frightened him, and thereupon enters into a long and learned disquisition as to what the monster was, quotes Pliny, Aris- totle, and Ctesias as to its origin and etymology of its name, dives into classical antiquities to ascertain its localities and habitudes, and spares no pains to enlighten us in regard to this uncouth beast which he found in a juvenile story-book. The same minuteness marks his details as to his family, which are dull enough when confined to his immediate progenitors, and, extended to his brothers and cousins, become utterly intolerable. On the whole, however, it is an entertaining little volume, full of interesting information about the literary and political celebrities of the times, accurate in the delineation of the man- ners and state of society among his contemporaries, delightful for its free and almost careless tone, and charming for its de- scriptions of Italian cities and scenery. Hunt lived in a time which we like to read about. His raiik among literary men was such, that lie had abundant opportunities for observing the tendencies of literature, and the personal excellences and prejudices of those who took the lead in the different coteries into which authors were at that time divided. We do not propose to enter into the elaborate criticism of his various works; but rather to dwell upon his personal history, and to glance cursorily at others who form the background of the picture in which he has taken good care to make Leigh Hunt the central figure. The regency and the reign of George IV., disgraced as thc~ 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 157 were by the profligacy of the sovereign and the easy morality of his court, were nevertheless brilliant in military achieve- ments, and in the creations of literary and ~estIietic genius. The preceding age had produced no such generals as Welling- ton and Uxbridge, no such poets as Byron, Coleridge, and Wordsworth, no such novelist as Scott, no such critics as Lord Francis Jeffrey and Sir James Mackintosh. The arts of litera- ture, which had become heavy and methodical by the too sensitive ear of Pope, the graceful monotony of Addison, and the ponderous genius of Johnson, were in this period restored to a vigorous independence, such as gave full vent to those illustrious writers who adorned the otherwise splendid reign of Elizabeth. A few years ago some of the foremost of those who figured as reformers in Georges reign were yet living, Rogers, De Quincey, Moore, Wordsworth, Talfourd. Now but two remain to represent that brilliant era. Lord Brough- am still lives to adorn Westminster Hall by his yet vivid eloquence, to elevate science by his patient and penetrating research, and to enrich letters by a critical ability and a mem- ory rich in historic lore, such as few men possess in the prime of life. Walter Savage Landor, at the great age of eighty- seven, retains that vivacious temperament and matchless hu- mor which a half-century ago attracted to his companion- ship the first scholars and savans of Europe. Leigh Hunt survived most of his contemporaries, and died in a good old ~ge in the latter part of the year 1859. A consideration of the literature of the period referred to discovers great variety, both in the current of thought and in the different styles which gave it expression. This is more especially the case with the poets; and from this diversity a natural consequence was that literary men separated into cliques, each representing peculiar characteristics of sentiment or diction, and each bitterly antagonistic to all the others. Thus arose different schools of poetry, all agreeing perhaps in rejecting the poets of the eighteenth century as too far enslaved by the empire of rhythm and metre over ideas, all eschewing the rules enounced by the schools of which Pope and Goldsmith were representatives, but seeking, each after its own peculiar system, to reform and to elevate by widely VOL. xcyII.NO. 200. 14 158 LEIGH RUNT. [July, diverging methods. It is not proposed to analyze the different styles which thus took their rise, that task having been thoroughly executed long since by the ablest critics both of England and this country; but merely to call attention to them, that our author may be put in the class to wbich he was attached, and that his position in the literary world may be fully illustrated. Of the new generation of poe ts, Lord Byron rose first, and assumed for a while the dictatorship of poetry and of popular applause. As his rise was sudden, so was his subsequent downfall; and after being alternately flattered by the highest encomiums, and condemned by the bitterest anathemas, of his countrymen, he finally was entirely super- seded by other schools. Then the Lake poets, at first and for many years assailed by the fiercest enmity of an almost unanimous critical opinion, and doomed by the most power- ful censors to oblivion and ignominy, slowly approached the public ear, and finally established themselves securely in the popular esteem, Byron having already met his fate, and retired in despair from his own country forever. Of the Lake school, Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth were the shining lights; and they, uniting on common ground in their political, religious, and literary opinions, first opened a new path into which poetic inspiratiou should be directed, going back to the Elizabethan era for their precedents in disregarding metrical accuracy. While this coterie was yet struggling for suprem- acy, there appeared, trumpeted by Leigh Hunt in the Exami- ner, what their contemporary enemies contemptuously called the Cockney School, of which Keats became the martyr and Shelley the hope. Attracted by the erratic genius of the one, and by the independent mind and warm heart of the other, Hunt proposed to himself the glory of heralding the approach of a new era, which should eclipse the fairest periods of poetical history. The novel opinions to which the revolu- tionists of France gave birth, harmonizing with their enthu- siastic spirits, became the creed of the Cockneys; and their issues were heresies, the more dangerous because clothed in the alluring splendor of poetry. The result of so ill-judged an attempt to seduce public sentiment from an appreciation of healthy to a taste for morbid literature, was a just retribution 1863.] 159 LEIGH HUNT. upon its authors; for Shelley was Hot only expelled from the University of Oxford for atheistical opinions, but was shunned alike by literary men and by the public; and Keats, after insanely endeavoring to gain for himself national favor, re- ceived, at the hands of the Quarterly Review, a fatal blow to his cnrrent reputation, if not to his enduring fame. Leigh Hunt was endowed with much less genius, less independence, and more foresight, than his unfortunate friends. His writ- ings evinced less originality, less brilliancy of imagination, less startling scepticism. He therefore escaped the withering rebukes of those critics who assumed, and soon acquired, the position of oracles for the general judgment. His mind, too, was more healthily organized than those of Shelley and Keats; and instead of rushing headlong into the wild theories of Vol- taire and Mirabean, he stopped at a reasonable independence of ecclesiastical conventionality, and, rejecting the doctrine of liberty, equality, fraternity, as interpreted by the Jacobins and Republicans, clung to limited monarchy with all its faults. For several generations the ancestors of Leigh Hunt, on his fathers side, were natives of Barbados; and his great-grand- father, grandfather, and father were all clergymen of the Es- tablished Church of England. Isaac Hunt, at an early age, was sent to college in Philadelphia, and afterwards in New York. It was at the latter place, as Leigh tells us, that a romantic incident occurred, which was materially to affect his future. When he was delivering his oration, at the close of his collegiate course, two young ladies among his audience, charmed doubtless no less by his graceful delivery and flow- ing style, than by his blue eyes and well-chiselled features, were so indiscreet as to fall in love with him. With one of them he was equally well pleased, and after a courtship which seems to have derived its chief charm from mutual recitations of the poets, they were married. It is an amusing feature of this incident, that the two ladies stood to each other in the relation of aunt and niece, though they were nearly of the same age. The mother of Leigh Hunt was a daughter of Stephen Shewell, a Philadelphia merchant of wealth, and of Quaker descent. Dr. Franklin was intimate at his house, and once 160 LEIGH HUNT. [July, offered to teach Miss Shewell the guitar; but she was too shy to accept his tutorship. Mr. Isaac Hunt was at first destined for the Church; but showing a disinclination to that profes- sion, he began the study of law in Philadelphia. When the Revolution broke out, he warmly espoused the cause of the King, and so earnest was he in the expression of his opinions, that he was mobbed by the populace. He was obliged to escape by stealth from the city, and, having succeeded in reaching a ship bound for England, he made the voyage in her. He now entered the Church, and when Mrs. Hunt afterward joined him, she found him officiating as Rector of Bentinck Chapel at Paddington. He afterward became tutor to Mr. Leigh, nephew of the Duke of Chandos, the gentleman for whom he named the subject of this sketch. He seems at this time to have had high hopes of a bishopric, through the influence of the Duke, his patron; but he never rose above the rectorship of a popu- lar chapel. As Leigh Hunt describes his father, we cannot help assimilating him to Thackerays character of Charles Honeyman, in The Neweomes, with his smooth, liquid voice, his flowing style, his studied grace, his sleek appear- ance, and his occasional convivial indiscretions. He seems to have loved gayety and fun, and to have cared more for worldly comtbrt than for spiritual food. His indolence soon reduced him to poverty; and although he had been popular as a preacher, he now found but few friends to relieve him. From a High-Churchman and a Tory, he became a Universal- 1st and a semi-Republican; and these later views of the father were inculcated in his early lessons to his son, who adhered to them through life. Mrs. Hunt is described by her son as a sensitive woman, keenly alive to the appearance of distress, melancholy, but withal of great moral courage. Leigh Hunt was born on the 19th of October, 1784, at South- gate, a beautiful village in Middlesex; a spot also known as the resting-place of Coleridge and Lamb, and formerly as the residence of Arbuthnot, Akenside, Shelley, and Keats. He was a sickly child, and the village physician used to predict that he would die an idiot before he was fifteen. He was early sent to France to improve his health, and such was the watch- ful solicitude of his mother, that he finally grew up a healthy, 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 161 bright-eyed lad, ready at all times for study or frolic. As he became more mature, his character developed partly after the disposition of his father, and partly after that of his mother. At times he would be happy and boisterous, and, donning his childish sword and cap, he would amuse himself with military sports; at other times be would become grave and solemn, and, stealthily abstracting his fathers surplice and bands from the closet, would proceed to deliver a pompous homily to the astonished and delighted servant-maid. His early childhood was passed during a period peculiarly eventful in the history of England. The American Revolution, in which both his parents had a personal interest, had but a little before his birth resulted in the success of the Colonies. The French Revolution was approaching, and erelong would burst upon the doomed people, and at one blow shake philoso- phy, religion, social order, and political system to their foun- dations. Burke, Fox, and Pitt were rising to the leadership of the House of Commons; Goldsmith and Johnson had just dis- appeared forever from the scenes of their enduring triumphs; Cowper was the presiding genius of poetry; the Empress Cath- anne was startling Europe by her masculine energy and war- like enthusiasm; Great Britain was on the verge of passing from the government of a crazy father to that of a licentious and indolent son; Voltaire and Paine were attracting to their intellectual dominion the flower of the Continental youth; Gibbon was alluring by his stately sophistry the minds of men from the perception of the true influence of Christianity; Sheridan was the dictator of the drama; and Mrs. Siddons was just engaging the applause of the British public by her majes- tic presence and wonderful passion. Hunts early recollection teemed with such remembrances as these. He had seen Pitt in the House of Commons appealing to his colleagues with a loud, important, md hollow voice~; he had looked with wonder upon Home Tooke, whom he had been taught to be- lieve a man of surprising learning and sagacity; he had met John Wilkes and Charles Townshend, and was thus enabled to contrast the ugliest and the handsomest man of the time he had listened with rapture to the queen of the British stage 14* 162 LEIGH HUNT. [July, he had been charmed with the matchless beauty of the Duchess of Devonshire. In 1792 he was admitted a student in the school of Christs Hospital, which was originally intended by Edward VI. as a foundation for poor orphan children born in London, but which afterward extended its benefits to the middle classes as well as the lower. In this school had been educated some of the first writers and scholars of England; Richardson, the genial author of Pamela and Clarissa ; Bishop Stilling- fleet, whose courtly eloquence charmed the nobility of Queen Annes time ; Mitchell, the translator of Aristophanes; Home, the theologian; Barnes, for many years editor of the Times; Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Charles Lamb. Leigh Hunt was placed in the Grammar School, devoted to the instruction of those who intended pursuing the liberal pro- fessions. Many are the amusing incidents of his school-days with which he entertains us; how the quaint dresses of the scholars used to astonish the passers in the street; how, indig- nant at the cruelty of one of the larger scholars toward a smaller, he soundly thrashed the bully, and humbled him into a peaceable lad; how the master, Boyer, was a tyrant after the fashion of Squcers, and seemed to delight in punishing poor Leigh for stammering; how they were preached to alternately by exceedingly prosy and exceedingly energetic divines; how all the boys looked up to a Grecian, and how the Grecians used to walk straight forward, overturning with exquisite com- posure the smaller urchins who happened to be in their path; how many a cunning trick, sometimes successful, sometimes abortive, was played upon the dreaded master, and how a spir- ited boy once in a while braved his fury, and by impudence conquered him; how he once saw Lamb, with his fine intel- ligent face, on a visit to his Alma Mater; with what enthu- siasm he spent his sixpences at the book-stall round the corner, on an humble edition of the poets; how he learned to appre- ciate Homer and Ovid, to love Goldsmith and Pope, to study Atterbury and Wharton; how he formed friendships lasting and delightful, which were always to be kept fresh; and with what tearful regret he finally left that scene of his joys and sorrows and his best friendships, and, assuming a hat and coat, 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 163 entered once more the bustling world. It is the old story of school-life in England, vividly told, and rich in pleasant details, attractive alike by its simplicity and its hearty enthusiasm. While at this school he became intimate with two families, of which he speaks with such affectionate interest rhat we can- not avoid noticing them. One was that of Benjamin West, F. R. S., the illustrious painter and elegant gentleman. Mr. West had married a relative of Mrs. Hunt, and was an Ameri- can by birth. In his house Leigh was ever welcome, and many were the delightful hours he spent there. He says of Mr. West, He was a man with mild, regular features; and, though of Quaker origin, looked what he was, a painter to the court. His appearance was so gentlemanly, that the moment he changed his gown for a coat he seemed to be full dressed. The young scholar was wont to wander with rapture among the productions of the artists pencil; wrapt in admiration at Sir Philip Sidney giving up the water to the dying soldier; awe- stricken at the wild brilliancy of Ophelias countenance; in- spired with pious reverence as he gazed upon the calm, perfect face of Christ Healing the Sick. He says, My mother and I used to go down the gallery as if we were treading on wool. The quiet kindness of the Wests, the pleasant humor of the artist, and the always cheerful welcome, awaken affectionate remembrances of those delightful visits. Nor does he forget to mention the footman, who figured in his masters pictures as an apostle, and the butler, who wore his own likeness with proud ostentation on his shirt bosom. The other family of which he retains pleasant reminiscences was that of Mr. Godfrey Thornton, who lived in Austin Friars. There his recollections teem with lawns and rich gardens, cor- dial welcomes and music, hospitality and female loveliness, a union of gayety and of intellectual delight. We would gladly review with him these scenes brimful of happiness, but we are compelled to desist for want of room. Leighs first love was Fanny Dayrell, his cousin, a bright West Indian lass, who, as being older than himself, used to dampen his ardor by contemptuously calling him petit gar- son. She soon after married, and they were separated for many years; but when they again met, after many vicissitudes 164 LEIGH HUNT. [July, to both, Leigh confesses to an emotion for which he had to seek his wifes forgiveness. After leaving school he turned his attention to the study of the profession which he had determined to follow, the un- substantial profession of poetry and literature. In 1802 his father published a volume of his verses, which, according to himself and every one else, were wretched. Nevertheless, the critics dealt with it with unaccountable gentleness, and for a time he was quite a lion among the literctti. He then became much interested in two subjects, the stage and mil- itary life. Bonaparte was threatening to crown his victorious course by achieving the conquest of England. Volunteers were forthcoming in multitudes, and companies were set to drilling throughout the kingdom. Leigh Hunt enlisted, but was soon discharged, with the rest of the valorous youth, when the imagined occasion disappeared. He attended the opera and theatre sedulously, and gives us charming descriptions of the eminent artists of the day. Catalani, with her wonderful vocal volume; 0-rassini, with her superb contralto; Pasta, unit- ing grace and tenderness; Jack Bannister, with his fair, round John Bull face and hearty honesty; Mundar, exciting a roar without uttering a sound; Kemble, with his Roman stateliness and sonorous declamation; Siddons, with her dreary and ter- rible majesty; Mrs. Jordan, with her fine spirits and happy countenance, all appear to us through our authors deline- ation, moving, speaking, provoking us to sadness, mirth, and wonder, as they did the generation of fifty years ago. It was at this time that he wrote his first prose, confining himself mainly to theatrical criticism, which he contributed to a paper called The Traveller. These essays were little bet- ter than his verses had been; they nevertheless gained for him a species of popularity. He devoted himself more earnestly than ever to books, among which the novels of Fielding, Smol- lett, Radcliffe, and La Fontaine were his especial favorites. This taste for novel-reading continued through life. Few will agree with his strictures on historians, for whom he entertained but little respect; and his censure of them, as assutning a dignity for which I saw no particular grounds, as unphilosophic and ridiculous in their avoidance of personal anecdote, and, 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 165 above all, as being narrow-minded and timeserving in con- fining their subjects to wars and party government, is unjust, exaggerated, and, as applied to the majority, totally false. But the writer for whom he evinces the most entire admiration is Voltaire. This enemy of religion and order he erects into a noble reformer; he contrives to find in him the most exalted virtues, while his vices are either ignored or rapidly passed over. It was undoubtedly this author who imbued Leigh Hunt with those revolutionary ideas which afterward brought upon him merited misfortune and obloquy. He became a mem- ber of a debating-club, among whose members were Thomas Wilde, afterward Lord Chancellor Truro, and Frederick Pol- bk, now Chief Baron of the Exchequer; but a habit of stam- mering, which rendered it exceedingly difficult for him to speak in public, induced him to leave this assembly, and de- termined him against the pursuit of a political career. In the year 1805 his brother, John Hunt, established a paper called The News, and Leigh was engaged to contribute to it the department of theatrical criticism. He determined to break loose from the custom which uniformly prevailed among critics, of exchanging compliments with the actors, and bar- tering puffs for tickets and suppers. He dashed about indis- criminately on the stage, doomed Betty to oblivion, assailed Kemble with a force which he imagined would annihilate the great Shakespearian, and sought, at the age of twenty-one, to obliterate the fame of The IRivals and The School for Scandal. These criticisms were published in a volume in 180T. The project of the News having failed of success, the brothers Hunt again essayed as journalists, and in 1808 The Examiner~~ appeared as the result of their plans. It was the intention of the proprietors to make this journal the organ of the radical IReformists, of the ultra liberal theologians, and of independent literary criticism. It went beyond Fox in its ad- vocacy of political innovation; it tended toward, if it did not impliedly encourage, an approval of Bonapartes career; and it was unscrupulously malignant toward the King and his min- isters. For a short time Leigh Hunt was a clerk in the War Office, at the head of which Lord Sidmouth presided; but finding himself placed in the invidious position of attacking 166 LEIGH HUNT. [July, the party in power, while he was fed by its generosity, he re- signed his position and devoted himself exclusively to literary labor. While editor of the Examiner, he made the acquaint- anc~e of many literary men, whose names have since become household words. At the table of Mr. Hill, proprietor of The Monthly Mirror, he met the generous and sensitive author of The Pleasures of Hope. He describes him as a genial companion, overflowing with humor, free and cordial, lively and earnest in conversation, not without a mixture of sarcasm, and, though rarely, of bitterness. His personal appearance which indeed we might guess from his portraits was classi- cally handsome, and his manners elegant and scholastic. Some gentle Puritan, says Hunt, seemed to have crossed the breed, and to have left a stamp upon his face; but he appeared not at all grateful for this, and when his critiques and his Virgilianism were over, very unlike a Puritan he talked! Under the same hospitable roof he also found Theodore Hook, whose talent for extempore verse astonished and amused the company, while his imitations of eminent characters were the more ludicrous for their exaggerated lifelikeness. The co- median Matthews entertained them with similar exhibitions, remorselessly bringing forth Garrick, Siddons, and Sir Walter, for the edification of his friends. James and Horace Smith, the authors of Rejected Addresses, also contributed a large share to the good cheer of the guests. The Examiner, meanwhile, became so bitter in its onslaughts upon the government, that two prosecutions for libel were brought against the proprietors by Sir Vicary Gibbs, the At- torney-General, both of which were, however, dropped before they reached the judgment of the court. One of these libels was an attack on the Duke of York, then commanding the army in chief, for corruption in the sale of commissions; the other was a contemptuous article on the King. About this time (1809) Leigh Hunt married Marianne, daughter of Thomas Kent, Esq. In 1810, so successful had the Examiner become, on account of its popularity among the lower classes, that Mr. John Hunt established a quarterly magazine called The Reflector, and the duty of editing it devolvcd on Leigh Hunt. To this periodical several of the most prominent 1863.1 LEIGH HUNT. lOT writers contributed, among others, Lamb, 113 ames, Dyer, and Aikin; but, in spite of every effort, it failed through want of funds and encouragement. The fact was, that the radicals were not generally from the richer classes, and hence could not support a quarterly. It lived long enough, however, to give utterance to much partisan venom, and in its early pages appeared a work by Leigh Hunt, which his own subsequent judgment failed to justify, and in which many noble writers were attacked, namely, The Feast of the Poets. It pre- sented to the ridicule of the public the most eminent poets of the age, and was particularly severe upon Sir Walter Scott; the principal objection to whom, in the authors mind, seems to have been that he was a Tory. We are happy to state that the author himself acknowledges this production to have been a just ground of offence; and certain it is that it brought down upon him nearly every literary celebrity, and caused an enmity to his paper which welluigh destroyed its existence. An excessive act of presumption soon after completed the ruin which he had barely escaped by the denunciation of critics. At an annual dinner of the Irish on St. Patricks day, 1812, the name of the Prince Regent was received with groans and hisses. After some discussion of this indignity by the Whig and Tory organs, the Examiner, ever ready for a verbal affray, took up the subject, and caine out in the severest denunciation of the heir apparent. Hunt went so far in this article as to call the prince a liar, a libertine head over ears in disgrace, a despiser of domestic ties, the companion of gamblers and deniireps, and other epithets equally gross. The government was prompt in bringing the authors of this libel to the judicial bar. The result was, that, after a careful trial, Leigh Hunt and his brother were sent to prison for two years, and fined one thousand pounds. Such was the state of our authors health, that confinement in the ordinary cells might endaLnger his life ; he was therefore transferred to the prison infirmary. Here lie found a pleasant room, leading into a small but taste- ful garden. I papered the walls with a trellis of roses; I had the ceiling colored with clouds and sky; the barred win- dows I screened with Venetian blinds; and when my book- cases were set up with their busts, and flowers and a piano- 168 LEIGH HUNT. [July, forte made their appearance, perhaps there was not a hand- somer room that side of the water. Thus with his exquisite taste did he contrive to make his new abode inhabitable; he had his family about him; his books were at his elbow; pen and paper were at hand, ready to fix a passing thought; and what was no mean consideration he had a jailer who was anxious to make him comfortable and happy. It was while he was imprisoned that he made the acquaintanQe of some of the first men of the time. Thomas Moore and Lord Byron visited him in his seclusion. Hazlitt came to cheer and amuse the martyred radical. The venerable Bentham, now grown old in the service of political science, took pains to make the ac- quaintance of one about whom so much had been said. The Lambs, too, ever ready to extend their sympathy to those in distress, were constant in their exertions to relieve his discom- fort. On the ~d of February, 1815, Hunt again breathed free air. He took board with his family soon after his release on the Edgeware Road, near his brothers house. It was bore that the acquaintance begun in prison with Lord Byron ripened into friendship. Hunts recollection of this remark- able person was that of a rather corpulent and strikingly handsome man, whose countenance wore an expression of spirit and elevation, and who had a very noble look. By- ron seems at this time to have taken quite a liking to Hunts society, and frequently urged him to go to the theatre and other amusements with him. His calls were very often re- peated; and, as it was before the current of public opinion had turned against him, he was always vivacious and good- humored. Another visitor at his house soon after his release from prison was William Wordsworth. Upon Hunts showing him his own works beside those of Milton in the library, the poet felt much gratified, and from that moment looked upon the author of the flattery with favor. He was a dignified man, with a rough but pleasant voice, prematurely gray and bald, with a very grand manner of speaking. I never beheld, says Hunt, eyes that looked so inspired or supernatural. In the year 1816 Mr. Hunt went to reside in Hampstead for his health; and here he finished his Story of Rimini, which had been commenced before his imprisonment. This 169 1863.] LEIGH IHTNT. poem is pronounced by the English critics the best that ever issued from his pen. It was after the manner of Dryden, and some portions of the poem are not unworthy imitations of him. We are now at that period when he formed the remarkable friendship with Percy Bysshe Shelley, which was to remain tender and uninterrupted during the life of the latter. He had seen Shelley early in his own career as a journalist, but it was not until 1816 that they were so thrown together as to become intimate; and meanwhile those domestic calami- ties and discords had occurred which nearly made the poet mad. Shelley and Keats met each other for the first time in Hunts house at Hampstead. Our author had met the latter when he was at work on the Examiner, and they had been mutually pleased with the acquaintance. The~ young poets, aristocratic and plebeian, became friends, although Keats was rather shy at first, distrusting as he did men of gentle birth. In some points of character, they resembled each other close- ly; in others, they were utterly opposite. Both were melan- choly, looking naturally upon the dark side of every question and circumstance. Both tended toward atheism, and both were radical reformists in morals, society, and government. Both rejected the ancient models of poetry. But Keats was sullen, suspicious, and cold; while Shelley was cordial, ingen- uous, and simple-hearted. Keats dreaded, and Shelley longed to love, every man. Keats harped upon specific subjects, and thought in a limited sphere; Shelley at one time gloried in the fields and flowers and landscapes, at another was held in awe by mighty subjects of eternal moment. But it melts our dislike of Keatss irritableness into compassion for his misery, when we think of that young life, wasted by malig- nant disease, disappointed in every hope by continued neglect or insult, when we see him departing from his native land, which he was never again to behold, dragging his weary body to Italy, and, to the last despairing, but gentle, lying down to die among the tombs and ruins of the Eternal City. Keats, when he died, says Leigh Hunt, had just completed his four~and-twentieth year. He was under the middle height; and his lower limbs were small in comparison with the upper, vOL. xcvn.NO. 200. 15 170 LEIGH HUNT. [July, but neat and well turned. His shoulders were very broad for his size ; he had a face in which energy and sensibility were remarkably mixed up, an eager power, checked and made patient by ill health. Every feature was at once strongly cut and delicately alive; the eyes mellow and glowing, large, dark, and sensitive. At the recital of a noble action or a beautiful thought they would suffuse with tears, and his month trembled. Unfortunately for the prosperity of the Examiner, Tory principles guided a large majority of the English people, as well as of the Continental communities ; arid in the year 1821 it had reached the end of its influence. Leigh Hunt, discouraged by the failure of his exertions in that direction, now determined to accept the invitation of his friend Shelley, who pressed him to go to Italy, where the latter was then residing. Shelley had conceived the project of establishing, conjointly with Byron and Hunt, a periodical of liberal bias, to advocate the ideas which were congenial to them all, to edit it in Italy, and to circulate it throughout Europe. Hunt em- barked with his family in a vessel bound for the Mediterra- nean in November, 1821; but, being disabled by a storm in the Channel, the ship was obliged to put in at Plymouth. There Hunt remained, taking lodgings for the winter, until May, 1822, when he again sailed, and arrived at. Genoa in the middle of the following month. His description of the voyage, his impressions on seeing for the first time the celebrated spots on the route, and his reflections while on shipboard, are full of interest; but we cannot pause to revert to them. He staid in Genoa but a day or two, and set sail on the 28th of June for Leghorn, where he was to meet Byron and Shelley. He found the noble poet cosily domiciled at a delightful villa called Monte Nero, a short drive from the city, the same house, indeed, which Smollett, the novelist, had occupied in his last days. Thence he went, in company with Byron, to Leghorn, where they met Shelley, and they all repaired to Pisa, the city residence of Byron. Hunt was provided with apartments in his Lordships house. The three enthusiasts, wandering about the curious old city, gave themselves up to rapturous dreams of future renown, and eagerly discussed 111 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. projects which were to confound their enemies and astonish their friends. Their delightful companionship was, however, doomed to a most melancholy end by Shelleys death, the circumstances of which are too well known to demand repe- tition here. Shelley, when he died, writes Hunt, was in his thirtieth year. His figure was tall and slight, and his constitution con- sumptive. Though well turned, his shoulders were bent a little, owing to premature thought and trouble. The same cause had touched his hair with gray. Like the Stagyrites, his voice was high and weak. His eyes were large and am- mated, with a dash of wildness in them; his face small, but well shaped, particularly the mouth and chin, the turn of which was very sensitive and graceful. Hunt remained three months at Pisa after his friends de- cease ; and thence went to Genoa with Byron. There they set about the work which had brought them to Italy, the publica- tion of a periodical called The Liberal. In the first number of this work appeared Shelleys last poem, an elegant transla- tion from Goethe, called The May-Day Night. At Genoa, Leigh Hunt occupied the same house with Mrs. Shelley, while Byron took a separate residence, the Casa Pallavicini. Here, owing to a broad difference of character, and dissimilarity of lit- erary taste, the friendship between the editors of the Liberal began to cool, and in the end turiled to absolute dislike. Hunt attributes this result to his own unwillingness to humor Byrons vanity, and to praise his works in terms sufficiently enthusias- tic. Byrons friends, on the contrary, assert that his Lordship had, in the first instance, overrated the literary merit of Hunt; that he discovered him to be entirely incompetent to co-oper- ate with him in his plans ; that Hunt became jealous of the other~ s superior powers and fame, and that it was only at his earnest solicitation that Byron first entertained the idea of joint editorship. Hunts description of his intercourse with Byron while in Italy is very entertaining. The noble poet, he tells us, sat up late at night writing Don Juan, with a bowl of gin and water at his elbow. He did not rise till late, and then only to lounge about the garden whistling or singing, chewing tobacco to prevent his growing corpulent, or indulging 172 LEIGH HUNT. [July, in jocular conversation with those he happened to meet. He wore a nankeen jacket, white vest and trousers, and a small velvet cap. Their difference of opinion did not prevent good- humored banterings and discussions; and they joked each other on the fact that there was only one book which both greatly admired, and that was Boswells Johnson. Byron, in his jocular moods, used to imitate Johnson for sport, in his manner and conversation, as well as other men of note. After the vain attempt to make the Liberal successful, it was abandoned, and Lord Byron went to Greece, Hunt re- maining at Genoa. Hunt gives us a vivid portrait of that noble city, describing its lovely site, the appearance, peculiari- ties, and manners of its people, the mode in which it is built, and the splendor of its edifices; accompanying us through the stately cathedrals, the galleries in which hang Raphacls and Giulios, the opera-houses, and the palaces of the illustrious dead. In the summer of 1823 he removed to Florence, so full of attraction to one who cherished historical and ~sthetic reminiscences. He took a pleasant villa about two miles from the city, in a small place called Maiano. Here had once lived Boccaccio, who made the vicinity the scene of two of his stories in the Decameron, and who revelled in its graceful and varied landscape. Near by, too, was the house which was once the property of Machiavelli; and at a short distance stood the village of Settignano, where Michael Angelo first learned to animate the canvas with his marvellous creations. A man could not but be happy among such memorials. He had, too, English neighbors to sympathize in his tastes, and to talk over home news with him; and in Florence he became acquainted with Landor, who was already eminent as a poet of nature, and whose interest in the historical attractions of Florence equalled that of Hunt himself. Lord Dillon also contributed by his cordial temperament and elegant erudition to make the days pass pleasantly. Our author meanwhile labored as much as his health would permit, translated IRedis Bacco in Toscana, and wrote various essays which he called The Wishing-Cap, and which were the foundation of his larger work, The Town. He attempted to establish a quarterly, which was to contain 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 173 selections from the best English reviews for the entertainment of English residents ; but the sensitiveness of the Tuscan gov- ernment as to political articles, and their fear lest something revolutionary might creep into the new periodical, made the endeavor futile. He wrote also parts of another work which he called Christianism, or Belief and Unbelief Reconciled. It afterward appeared, revised with additions, under the title of Religion of the Heart. After staying about two years among localities which en- chanted him, Hunt started, in the autumn of 1825, on his return journey, going overland, travelling slowly in carriages. In this way he had fine opportunities for observing the varieties in Italian scenery, people, and manners, passing through Bo- logna, Modena, Reggio, Farina, Asti, Turin, Susa; thence cross- ing from the Po over the Alps to Savoy, Chamb6ry (where he visited Rousseaus house), Lyons, and finally to Paris. He re- mained in the French metropolis two days only, in which time he hastily visited the places where the main incidents of the Revolution were enacted, the palaces, and the galleries, not for- getting to spend a good share of his time in searching among the book-stalls. On the 14th of October he reached England, having been abroad more than three years. It was, indeed, with a feeling of infinite relief that he found himself again in his own country. He had recovered tolerably good health, had seen the glories of Italy, and had become a wiser man by his sojourn abroad; but meanwhile the want of regular and lucrative employment had told upon his means of subsistence, and made him uneasy and dissatisfied. To one who had been so long among the rich scenery of Tuscany, the healthy fresh- ness of English landscape seemed a relief; for, however much he admired the former, his choice was to live and die amid the latter. The pleasantest idea, says he, which I can conceive of this world, as far as ones self and ones enjoy- inents are concerned, is to possess some favorite home in ones native country, and then travel over all the rest of the globe with those whom we love; always being able to return if we please; and ever meeting with new objects as long as we choose to stay away.~~ Hunts intimate connection with what was termed the 1S * 174 LEIGH HTJNT. [July, Cockney School, (to which, by the by, lie claims that Chaucer, Milton, and Pope belonged,) placed him at some disadvantage, owing to the unpopularity of its leading repre- sentatives. The Tories, stringently orthodox alike in politics and religion, opposed vehemently a class of men who aimed their most powerful anathemas against the existing institutions of both; and the Tories, backed by the King and the influence of Wellington, as well as by Sir Walter Scott, Southey, Cole- ridge, and other equally popular literary celebrities, were the controlling party in all matters of opinion. Hunt had friends, however, who thoroughly appreciated him, and to the restricted measure of their ability encouraged his efforts to obtain a liveli- hood by his pen. Although he seems to have retained a cheer- ful disposition, he was exhausted by repeated and unsuccessful effort, while his health again became precarious. He took up his residence at Highgate after his return, and there wrote the series of essays now known to the world as The Com- panion. He also wrote, about this time, Sir Ralph Esher, which is a fictitious memoir of a gentleman at the court of Charles II. It is a very entertaining little book, and presents in a free and unconstrained style the manners of those times, and some of the historical characters. This latter feature is one which, whenever introduced, greatly enhances the interest of a work of fiction. The vicinity of London was the only place in which literary labor could be conveniently pursued; and so Hunt removed to Old Brompton, and took rooms with Mr. Knight, with whom he issued a small daily paper called The Tatler. This periodical was confined to literary and theatrical subjects, which contracted its circulation so far, that after a doubtful prosperity of three years it ceased. In 1833 his poems were collected, and issued by subscription. The liberal reform of 1832, and the benignant reign of William IV., had produced a marked change in public sentiment: Tory politics and High-Church prelates no longer dictated the censorship of every emanation from the press; and con- sequently the new volume was far froiu unpopular, and met with unexpected success. Meanwhile, the precarious state of Hunts own health, and that of his family, induced him to re- move to the quiet town of Chelsea, where they could enjoy pure 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 175 air, freedom from bustle, and an easy access to the verdure of fields and meadows; while a proximity to the metropolis afforded every opportuiiity for increased comfort and con- venient labor. Here he continued portions of his work, The Town, contributed frequently to the Edinburgh and West- minster, and projected a periodical called The London Jour- nal; besides which he wrote a poem entitled Captain Sword and Captain Pen. The London Journal continued until 1836, and was, as we might expect, of an entirely literary character, being made up of essays, criticisms, quotations, and, rarely, political articles. Hunt had always had a decided taste for the drama, and a strong desire to try his hand at dramatic writing; and at dif- ferent periods of his life he had attempted unsuccessfully to produce a good play. While at Chelsea, he again essayed in this field, and completed a piece called The Legend of Flor- ence. He greatly enjoyed this occupation; and the product of his labor, though at first rejected by the managers, was finally brought on to the boards of Covent Garden in 1840. It met with decided success; the actors were delighted with it; Planch6 and Mrs. Kean, according to the author, were affected to tears by it; and, what was its chief victory, the Queen herself patronized its performance several times. He also wrote The Secret Marriage, a piece founded on a tale of Navarre, which did not please the managers, but nev- ertheless displays no small merit, Lovers Amazements, The Double, Look to your Morals, and The Palfrey. It was while residing at Chelsea that he formed an acquaint- ance with one whose later works have elevated him to the first rank of philosophical essayists, and whose productions had then made his name well known as a rising writer. We refer to Thomas Carlyle, whose eyes, says Leigh Hunt, are the finest, in every sense of the word (and I have seen many fine ones), which I have seen in a mans head. Hunt considers him a most eloquent man, with a kind and philan- thropic heart, and a brain on fire at the wrongs and sophis- tries of mankind. His view of Carlyles manner of attacking worldly evils is, that it is more rough and unforgiving than the authors nature would lead one to suppose; and he says, 176 LEIGH HUNT. [July, I believe that what Mr. Carlyle loves better than his fault- finding, with all its eloquence, is the face of any human crea- ture that looks suffering and loving and sincere. An application was made by the friends of Leigh Hunt to Viscount Melbourne, the Premier, for a pension, on the ground that a Liberal ministry could afford to assist one who had so long contended in behalf of the now dominant doc- trines. But, although the well-known courtesy of his Lordship forbade a blunt refusal, nothing further was gained from him than a bland and indefinite promise. Hunt thinks it was because the Minister considered it unbecoming in a sovereign to grant a pension to a person who had been imprisoned by his predecessor for a libel against the crown ; and this was undoubtedly a proper ground of refusal. His friends, failing in this project, set about another method for relieving his poverty. An amateur theatrical performance was given at Birmingham and Liverpool for his benefit; Ben Jonsons play of Every Man in his Humor was enacted; Charles Dickens took the part of Bobadil, and personated it admirably; Forster and Jerrold helped to fill up the r6le; Sergeant Talfourd and Sir Edward Bulwer composed an appropriate address for the occasion; and the affair terminated with ap- plause to the distinguished actors, and substantial profit to the recipient of the testimonial. He removed from Chelsea to Kensington, where he wrote Imagination and Fancy, Stories from Italian Poets, and The Jar of Honey, and completed The Town. He also wrote at this time the main part of the biography which is now before us. In 1849 he revived the London Journal for a while, but it failed from the usual cause, want of funds. He was much pleased to find that his works had been republished in America, and enjoyed a good degree of popularity here; and he also had the satisfaction of seeing several of his dramas successfully reproduced in the principal theatres of the metropolis. In the autumn of 1832 he lost a son of great merit, who promised to become eminent as a poet, and whose last words were, as his father says, poetry itself. I drink the morn- ing, said he, as he drank some water which refreshed him. The latest literary labors of Leigh Hunt were devoted to the 1863.] LEIGH HUNT. 177 revision and extension of his book entitled Religion of the Heart, in which are set forth his theological opinions and his conclusions from a long experience. It is in a genial, hopeful strain. It was eminently a work of love, not written for gain, but put forth when age had ceased to crave lucre, and with the evident intention to do good. It was his dying legacy to his children and to the world; and such is the calm and loving tenderness with which he treats every subject that passes in review before him, that one must be drawn toward him, with all his faults of self-conceit and eccentricity. His wife died in 1857; and in his closing pages he pays her a pathetic and appreciative tribute of affection. He describes her as generous, free from every kind of jealousy, superior to illusions from the ordinary shows of prosperity. She had through life borne with him the vicissitudes of fortune with- out a murmur, and even cheerfully, and, when thoroughly sick and exhausted, never uttered a complaint. She was quite remarkable for the use of her pencil, received compliments from Mr. West for her proficiency in that respect, and was particularly accurate in the delineation of the human profile. Our author himself had but just given the final touch to his Autobiography, when he, too, was summoned to the other world. He died, at the age of seventy-five, on the 28th of August, 1859, two years after his wifes departure. So gen- tle, says his son, was the final approach, that he scarcely recognized it till the very last, and then it came without ter- rors. His health had been failing gradually for some years; and so his friends were surprised neither by the approach nor by the quietness of his death. He had employed his last hours in assisting in the preparation of the Shelley Memo- rials, designed to vindicate and to celebrate the character of his early and best-beloved friend. His memory, his clear, quick mind, his kindly temper, his love of humor, his attach- ment to books, remained vivid to the last day of his life. Sick- ness, which had enfeebled his body, had fortunately spared to him the use of those faculties which to him were peculiarly precious. He had lived to see the political reform of which he had been an earnest and a consistent advocate gradually on the ascendant; he had survived most of his contempora 178 LEIGH HUNT. [July, ries; he had attained a place among the celebrated writers of his day. These few words of his son show that to the last he retained an interest in the world without, and that his affec- tionate nature was alive almost in death: His failing breath was used to express his sense of the inexhaustible kindness he had received from the family who had been so unexpectedly made his nurses ; to draw from one of his sons, by minute, eager, and searching questions, all that he could learn about the latest vicissitudes and growing hopes of Italy; to ask the friends and children around him for news of those whom lie loved; and to send love and messages to the absent who loved him. In personal appearance, Leigh Hunt was tall and straight, while his eyes were black and very brilliant. His hair, early in life, was dark, but changed to pure white as he grew older. His complexion was dark. His face was decidedly intellectual, and withal indicated by its genial expression that he had a great heart. He had to a large degree that power of attract- ing the affection of others by a winning sympathy and a cor- dial manner, which he so enthusiastically attributes to his friend Charles Lamb. He was ever thinking, talking, and writing of his friends, always anxious to please them, and his chief enjoyment seems to have been in their companion- ship. The three salient traits that appear in his works and in his record of himself are amiableness, self-esteem, and a sprightly and almost romantic imagination. To the first he owed his chief happiness in life ; the second enabled him to keep up a stout heart against disappointment and opposi- tion; the third gave him the power and the will so to write that he has cheered many a weary soul, and filled many a winter evening with entertainment and instruction. His phi- losophy of life was, to look on the best phase of every subject and circumstance, never to despair, to meet rebuffs with a cheerful countenance, and to endure misfortune with forti- tude, hoping for and living in a better time to come. In this way he survived political persecution and critical denuncia- tion, bore sickness with patience, was melancholy without being misanthropic, was cheerful in the midst of poverty, made a happy home in a prison, and finally died, at a good 1863.1 LEIGH HUNT. 179 old age, contented, calm, and looking back with complacency on a varied, but, on the whole, a successful career. There was, nevertheless, blended with this enviable disposi- tion the alloy of partisan bigotry, a delight in making Tories smart, the exhibition of a bitter and malignant spirit toward those from whom be differed. There was an almost insuffer- able self-conceit, which magnified every action of his own into a virtue, and made his every effort, in his own esteem, an effort of rare genius. There was a want of respect for the opinion of wise men, when their wisdom did not mingle with his channels of thought. There was too much of that reck- less, radical, levelling spirit, which denies respect to the pow- ers that be, which presumes that existing institutions are evil from their mere existence, which, though it can propose noth- ing better, is determined to pull down at all events. Un- doubtedly, according to American ideas, Leigh Hunt was right in advocating a reform of the ballot, a restriction of executive power, the limitation of aristocratic influence, and a broader toleration in religious matters. The only question is, wbether his method was reasonable and judicious; whether it furthered the cause of the people to call the Prince Regent a liar and a libertine; whether it promoted toleration to sneer at the prelates of the national Church; whether it diminished the prestige of the nobility to denounce, in public prints, and with malignant emphasis, the corruptness of individual peers. It was a weakness of intellect, added to an enthusiasm which could brook no check, and which, unsustained by that philo- sophical calmness with which he viewed the vicissitudes of domestic fortune, failed of the desired result. One of the best editions we have seen of Hunts prose works is that issued in 1854, by W. P. Hazard of Philadelphia, in four volumes. The first volume is entitled The Italian Poets, comprising biographical notices of Dante, Pulci, Boi- ardo, Ariosto, and Tasso, and prose translations of portions of their works. The biographical notices are written in his usual easy and colloquial manner, and are richly entertaining. The translations are not so good, and can give but a faint idea of the authors. The second volume comprehends the sprightly essays which are known as The Indicator and The Coin- 180 [July, ACARNANIA. panion. The third volume consists of selections from British authors, and is intended to satisfy the taste of old and young alike. It is a book, says the author in his Introduction, (not to say it immodestly,) intended to lie in old, forlorn windows, in studies, in cottages, in cabins aboard ship, in country-inns, in country-houses, in summer-houses, in any houses that have wit enough to like it, and are not the mere victims of a table covered with books for show. It begins with childhood, and ends with the churchyard ; for the first selection is The Schoolmistress, by Shenstone; then follow articles for minds farther and farther advanced in ma- turity, and the series closes with Grays Elegy in a Country Churchyard. The last volume is also made up of selections from the most celebrated English poets, with short critical no- tices by Hunt, and with an introductory essay entitled, What is Poetry? Aur. VII. Le ]ilont Olympe et lAcarnanie, Exploratiom de ces deux R~gions, avec lEtude de leurs Antiquit~s, de leurs Populations anciennes et modernes, de leur Wogra- phie et de leur Ilistoire. Ouvrage accompagn~ de Plan- ches. Par L. HEUZEY, Ancien Membre de lEcole Fran~aise dAth~nes. Publi6 sous les Auspices du Minist& re de lInstruction Publique et du Minist~re dEtat. Paris Firmin Didot Fr~res, Fils, et Cie. 1860. 8vo. pp. 496. THE predominant passion of adventurers in these last years seems to be for climbing mountains. With every month some new volume from the English press, or some spirited letter in the London weekly journals, acquaints us with the discoveries and exploits of the Alpine Club. The ascent of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa has now become a common affair, hardly worthy of boasting or detailed statement, as common as the ascent of Skiddaw and ilelvellyn in the last generation. The ambition of mountain tourists now is to stand where no foot of man has stood before; to reveal in the Pyrenees and Alps peaks hitherto unknown, or to open to the science of civ- ilized man the ranges hitherto beyond his quest.

180 [July, ACARNANIA. panion. The third volume consists of selections from British authors, and is intended to satisfy the taste of old and young alike. It is a book, says the author in his Introduction, (not to say it immodestly,) intended to lie in old, forlorn windows, in studies, in cottages, in cabins aboard ship, in country-inns, in country-houses, in summer-houses, in any houses that have wit enough to like it, and are not the mere victims of a table covered with books for show. It begins with childhood, and ends with the churchyard ; for the first selection is The Schoolmistress, by Shenstone; then follow articles for minds farther and farther advanced in ma- turity, and the series closes with Grays Elegy in a Country Churchyard. The last volume is also made up of selections from the most celebrated English poets, with short critical no- tices by Hunt, and with an introductory essay entitled, What is Poetry? Aur. VII. Le ]ilont Olympe et lAcarnanie, Exploratiom de ces deux R~gions, avec lEtude de leurs Antiquit~s, de leurs Populations anciennes et modernes, de leur Wogra- phie et de leur Ilistoire. Ouvrage accompagn~ de Plan- ches. Par L. HEUZEY, Ancien Membre de lEcole Fran~aise dAth~nes. Publi6 sous les Auspices du Minist& re de lInstruction Publique et du Minist~re dEtat. Paris Firmin Didot Fr~res, Fils, et Cie. 1860. 8vo. pp. 496. THE predominant passion of adventurers in these last years seems to be for climbing mountains. With every month some new volume from the English press, or some spirited letter in the London weekly journals, acquaints us with the discoveries and exploits of the Alpine Club. The ascent of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa has now become a common affair, hardly worthy of boasting or detailed statement, as common as the ascent of Skiddaw and ilelvellyn in the last generation. The ambition of mountain tourists now is to stand where no foot of man has stood before; to reveal in the Pyrenees and Alps peaks hitherto unknown, or to open to the science of civ- ilized man the ranges hitherto beyond his quest. 1863.] ACARNANIA. 181 Nor are the ancient mountains, famed in the songs of poets and in the histories of wars, and described by Herodotus and Strabo, left wholly unvisited by our modern travellers. Has not Parrot told us about Ararat what the ancient geographers were unable to tell? Has not the precise narrative of Ferrara confirmed the glowing verse of Lucilius Junior about the dan- gers and the wonders of Aetna? In the detailed statement of Wick, the Ida of Crete becomes as well defined as the Ida of Troy. Ulrichs has illustrated Parnassus and the oracle at its foot. The exalted summit which Hera touched in her flight over sea and land from Olympus to Lemnos is now, as the Holy Hill of Athos, the centre of curious and religious pilgrimage. Englishmen, who have never visited the ruins of bun, and perhaps have never heard of the Isle of St. Cuthbert, on their own shore, take pains to seek tbis remote monastic swarm; and travellers from Florence to Rome occasionally leave the beaten track to climb the sides of Soracte, that summit of doubtful gender and doubtful religion, of Apollo once, and now of Sylvester. Nor has the Olympus of Thessaly, the home of gods and heroes, been neglected by modern topographers. Holland describes it as be saw it admiringly, and Leake as he carefully measured it. The epithets of Homer, Virgil, and Horace are all justi- fied by the present appearance of the mountain. But the most full and accurate description of it is that which has been re- cently published under the direction of the French government, by M. L. Heuzey. All that we know of M. Heuzey is, that he was once a member of the French School of Athens. Whether he has before appeared as an author there is nothing in his book to tell us, and the dictionaries of biography are silent concerning him. We cannot learn even whether he holds an official position, or whether his journey was undertaken at the expense and suggestion of the French government. With very slight preface, he at once commences his scientifically con- structed narrative, going round the mountain, across it, along its sides, under its shadow, following the course of the rivers, and the line of the sea, visiting all the towns, villages, con- vents, castles, and ruins of every kind, and giving, along with the present aspect of the region, a summary of its history from voL. xcvll.NO. 200. 16 182 AGARNANIA. [July, the earliest time to the present. Legends, whether classical, romantic, or monastic, are sparingly used, often enough to sus- tain the interest of the reader, but not often enough to impair the scientific character of the work. The style of the narrative is chaste, easy, and clear, and there is the evidence, though not the parade, of adequate learning and investigation. The nu- merous inscriptions copied are given in fac-simile in the Appen- dix, and the most striking monuments are illustrated by finely executed plates. M. ileuzeys account of Olympus and its surroundings makes a very valuable monograph, and will doubtless supersede as authority all previous descriptions. In some particulars he differs from the statements of Colonel Leake, especially in re- gard to the height of the mountain. M. Heuzey adopts as correct the height given upon the English charts, of 9,754 feet above the level of the sea. In the description of ruins and the sites of ancient cities he is especially exact, and his reasoning here is often very ingenious. To the manners and customs of the present inhabitants, and even to the condition of the monasteries, he pays comparatively little heed. This, however, is not from indifference or from want of observation, since the second half of the volume shows that he is as close a critic of men and manners as of sites and relics. The plan of his work would not allow much detail upon the Thessaly of to- day. Nevertheless, we learn always the size of the towns, the condition of the roads, and the general state of commerce and tillage. He usually prefaces his discussion of an historical question by a notice of the present condition of the town upon the site to which his inquiry is directed. We do not propose to say more upon M. Heuzeys descrip- tion of Mount Olympus and the territory around it, but to confine this article to a notice of the second half of his volume, which treats of a region comparatively obscure and rude. This part of the volume is the more curious and valuable. If, in the time of the Roman satirist, few were able to visit Corinth and report upon its pleasures and its splendors, fewer still had the inclination to land on the inhospitable shores which skirt the southern side of the Ambracian Gulf. The region was never attractive to travellers. The Greeks generally gave the Acar 1863.] ACARNANIA. 183 nauialls a bad name, and treated them as a troublesome race, to be shunned, hunted, and oppressed. They were to the other races what the Highianders were to the English of the last century, or the Montenegrins to the Turks of the present cen- tury. Acariiania is a fresh field for discovery, and M. Heuzey can congratulate himself that his revelations of this region tell the world something which was not known before. Here is a region of which Homer makes no mention, and in which the Roman Itineraries lay down but a single road. The French- man is privileged to show that this neglected land has poetry and beauty, and that there is much to see, if not on its high- ways, on its many by-ways. M. Heuzeys description of the physical features of Acarnania is singularly graphic. It is a land of strange contradictions. Accessible from the sea on two sides, and for two thirds of its extent, it has scarcely any foreign commerce; and with fertile plains, it has almost no agriculture. In one part of the land, where rains are abundant, there are yet no springs, and the highways in another part are just where we should not look for them. The richest treasure of the soil is what it produces spontaneously, and what in other lands would be rejected as useless. It is difficult, indeed, to give the boundaries of Acar- nania with accuracy, although its general shape is that simplest geometrical form of the triangle. It is the most westerly prov- ince of Modern Greece, about ten days journey from Athens, over bad roads, infested by robbers. No sane Athenian ven- tures farther than Delphi, regarding all beyond that mystic locality as barbarous and fearful; and Delphi is scarcely more than half-way to the Acheloiis, which forms the eastern limit of the Acarnanian triangle. The modern name of this classic stream, Aspro-potamo, if less dignified than the ancient, ex- presses very fitly the character of its current. The western side of the triangle is washed through all the length of a deeply indented coast by the always rough waves of the lonian Sea, vexed here by the counter currents of the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. Opposite in the sea, and separated only by a narrow channel, is the island of Santa Maura, the ancient Leu- cadia; and the white rock of Apollo, dreaded by mariners, (formidatus nautis,) and of Sapphos fatal leap, is plainly visi 184 ACARNANTA. [July, ble from the mountains of the mainland. Over against the southern shore of the triangle is the smaller island of Ithaca, the home of Ulysses and Telemachus. The northern shore, which makes the base of the triangle, borders in most of its length upon the Gulf of Arta, that A?nbracius Sinus at the en- trance of which was fought the decisive battle which made Augustus master of the world. Between the Achelolis and the gulf, in the northeast corner of the land, the mountain Gavrovo stands as a sentinel guarding the entrance. The whole territory included within this triangle, embracing the ancient province of Amphilochia as well as that of Acar- nania, does not probably exceed two thousand square miles. These provinces are represented to some extent by the modern division of the land into the Yaltos and the Xeromeros. The Yaltos occupies the northeastern division, bordering upon the Gulf of Arta. With the exception of a small plain of a few miles in extent, the whole country is a mass of mountain ranges, separated by dangerous ravines, and cut transversely by deep chasms, made by the mountain torrents. The succes- sive ranges rise from the sea like a series of gigantic steps, and the only practicable communication is over the summits of the highest range. In most countries the roads follow the course of streams. The Simplon highway takes the valley of the IRhone, and the Spliigen the valley of the Rhine, to climb the hills more easily. But in the Yaltos of Acarnania, the best roads and the only roads keep to the highest ridge, and go over the peaks. The aim of the traveller is to get as speedily as possible above the line of the waterconrses. This style of trav- elling on the mountain-tops is called by people travelling 4v~ ~vy~. The difficulty of crossing the steep and deep chasms below is greatly increased by the thick woods which choke the pathway. Every defile is barricaded by chevaux- de-frise of hushes and boughs, through which water, but not man, finds a passage. The present aspect of the country verifies what Thucydides says of Amphilochia, that it is a country where the woods block up the roads, and where the ravines have no outlet. The Xeromeros, on the contrary, is comparatively an open region. It has woods and rocks enough, and hills high enough 1863.] ACARNANIA. 185 to be called mountains. But most of the country is a succes- sion of broad and elevated plains, resting on a limestone foundation. The line of the coast is sufficiently precipitous to make approach dangerous, and to warn commerce away. The name of the province indicates that it is wanting in water; yet this is because there are no springs, and not because the moisture of clouds is lacking. In the Xeromeros, vegetation is not parched and withered in the warm season, as in other parts of Greece. There are evergreen trees and almost pe- rennial flowers. But there are no fountains and no streams. The porous rock drinks in the rain, but will not give it back. The torrents lose themselves in unfathomable gulfs. No well, however deep, finds any supply, but down in the abysses vege- tation flourishes where man finds no access. The whole coun- try rings hollow to the tread of animals and men, and the brittle and friable rock is continually wearing away. It is marble in an immature stage, without the fineness of grain, the consistency, or the beauty of the Grecian marble. At the same time these waters, which seem to disappear, are not lost to the people. Gathering themselves far beneath the surface, they come again to light in the low places in the form of pools and lakes, at which animals come to drink, and from which the people find supply. The full lakes of the Xeromeros are fed by subterranean rivers. The Acheloiis flows in its whole course of near a hundred miles through a plain of great fer- tility. In ancient days, as the Greek writers aver, the plains of Acarnania were covered with flocks, herds, and teeming har- vests. Xenophon tells us that in his time the crops were so abundant that the people were always dreading invasion in their season of ingathering. The fertility still remains, but it has no longer such fruits. Only in a few gardens are the citron and orange found, and the vine and olive, in their sparing cul- ture, only prove the capacity of the soil. The wealth of the land at present is in its forests of oaks of different kinds. There are, indeed, valuable shrubs, the strawberry-tree, the evergreen cJiLXVKfl mentioned by Theophrastus, and the heath, the ancient ~petKfl. But from the oaks come the nourishment and increase of the land. Two species of these oaks are ever- 16* 186 ACARNANIA. [July, green, and one of them, the ~pia, the laurel-leaved, loves, like the American arbor-vit~, to hang over the brink of chasms and cascades. The most valuable variety of oak to the people is the /3EXalt& a, a term which M. Heuzey translates by the French word vallon~e. The value of this tree is precisely in the part which seems most worthless, not in the wood, not in the fruit, but in the cup which holds the fruit. This acorn- cup is used in Europe as a substitute for bark in tanning the finer kinds of skin. The extraordinary value of the tree comes from the fact, that, while its fruit is abundant and unfailing, it requires no culture or attention, growing spontaneously, and preferring rather a sterile soil, where the undergrowth is slight and there is no hinderance to the annual gathering. The tree has not even to be shaken, and the acorn in dropping disengages itself from the cup. The harvest of this oak is free to all the people, and no one has private ownership in this public treasure. The government only sets upon it an export duty, and so finds interest in making the gathering as large and as general as possible. In the season of this harvest, men, women, and children, the youngest and the oldest, surrender themselves altogether to the work of collecting these acorn- cups. Villages, fields, and flocks are deserted. The families encamp in the oak-groves until the supply is exhausted, and every one is seen with a sack upon the shoulder, hunting in the grass for this cheap treasure. It is said that some families make a thousand drachmas, or a hundred dollars, by a weeks industry under these oak-trees, a that the produce of this short season supports them through the rest of the year. Another use of the fruit of the oak in Acarnania is in the raising of swine. The Odyssey tells us that the shepherds of the Ithacan king had twelve herds of swine which they fed on this dreary shore; and the spectacle may be seen now, of swineherds, driving their unruly brutes from the highlands to the lowlands, with the changing season, to feed upoii the sweet acorns which fall in the groves. Some of the oaks drop their acorns late into the winter. The swine of Acarnania are small, black, bristly, and plump, and not very manageable when irri- tated. They are exported to the lonian Islands, to Italy, and to Malta. Sometimes the men share with the swine this rude 1863.1 ACARNANIA. 18~T food. The poor herdsman who follows them gathers in his bag the acorns which they leave behind, and illustrates in his daily habit the despair of the prodigal in the Scripture story. In Italy, the poor, in autumn, live mainly upon roasted chestnuts; and in Acarnania, as M. ileuzey affirms, they roast the bitter acorn and mix it with their corn in making bread. This, how- ever, is only a perpetuation of the ancient custom of the Pelasgi. The Acarnanians are rather a pastoral than an agricultural people. In sheep and goats they abound, and some villages can number no less than ten thousand head. The pastnrage is always abundant, since snow rarely falls upon the lower rnouiitains, and the sod is never dry. There is nothing to arouse the spirit of agricultural industry, while the people can thrive from the easier produce of their flocks and forests. The mineral wealth, too, which is probably of some value, is not cared for. Fires in the ground, lasting for months, prove that there is coal if they would search for it; and near the village of Aetos is a pool, the mud of which is a natural dye- stuff, turning to black all woollen cloth put into it. This may be a chemical quality of the decomposed wood of the oak, or it may result from some metallic principle in the soil. The race of men inhabiting Acarnania is, if we may trust M. Heuzey, the most genuine of all races that claim to be Greek. From the Gulf of Arta to the mouth of the Acheloils, all the people, with the exception of a community of nomad Wallachs, are of pure Grecian blood, lineal descendants of the ancient dwellers on the soil. In the kingdom of Greece, Albanian in- terlopers claim now to be heirs to the glory of Lycurgus, Pericles, and Alexander; but the true heirs to the ilellenes are to be found among these barbarians of the West. Their rude ilomaic idiom, with all its corruptions, has features of the ancient dialect which the restored literary language of Athens still lacks. The word /3OVK~XOS, which the herdsmen of the Morca and the Archipelago seem to have lost, is yet familiar on the tongues of the Acarnanians, ignorant as all of them probably are of the verse of .iEschylus. The changes in their vocabulary are mostly in the introduction of Italian words and phrases, borrowed from the Venetian conquerors 188 ACARNANTA. [July, of the Jonian Islands. Intead of wpwi, for instance, the Acarnanian uses the Italian buonora. It is in temper and position, rather than in manners and customs, that the Acarnanians are peculiar; and in respect to character and position there is a marked difference between the inhabitants of the ~Jaltos and the inhabitants of the Xero- meros. The inhabitants of the Valtos have their dwellings exactly where a traveller would be least likely to look for them, in the shade and seclusion of the deepest thickets. There are no villages on their hills, and no houses anywhere in sight from the roads. Only the odor of smoke among the trees, and the barking of dogs as the traveller approaches, re- veal the existence of any of their miserable cabins; and when the neighborhood of these is discovered, they cannot be reached except by winding, obscure, and dangerous paths. The name of the cottages, or kalyves, (Ka~4& a, the ancient classic name,) indicates at once their hiding from sight. They are constructed of branches and thatched with leaves, so that at a little distance it is impossible to distinguish them from the enveloping forest. At the first appearance of a stranger, the children run in aifright, and the women, and even the men, hasten to hide themselves behind their houses, half timid, half threatening. It is not easy to disarm their suspicion. But when perseverance and a gentle address have reassured them, they are eager in good offices, and vindicate the reputa- tion of the mountain tribes for hospitality. A mountaineer of the Yaltos asks no pay for the simple fare which he sets before his guest; and even refuses with dignity any offer of money. If he has borrowed from Italy the buonorct, he has not bor- rowed the buono-mano. The waz& Ko9 of Syra or Argos is not content without a bounty in addition to his charge; but all that is asked in the houses of the Valtos is the name of the guest, that he may be recognized if there should be another meeting. It must not be inferred from this disinterested hospitality that the peasants of the Yaltos are sociable or gregarious. No people can be more solitary in their habits. They have no villages, and in their hamlets the houses are usually far apart, separated by precipices, torrents, and forests. Neighbors are 1863.1 ACARNANIA. 189 more likely to be foes than friends, and are often in deadly feud. Visits between families are infrequent; the peasant does not wish to have even the companion of his toil or his brother in war a witness to the secrets of his household. The exception to this unsocial antipathy, however, is the strong tie which binds the members of the same family together. The adult children of the house do not depart when they marry, or seek their fortune away from the home of their father. They remain under the same roof, only building on to the main house a compartment of their own. Many of the dwell- ings of the Valtos, indeed, are clusters of separate cabins built around one centre, and communicating through the doorways. A man of the Valtos wants no neighbors but the kindred of his flesh, and a family is dispersed only by the death of the patriarch, or when it is too large longer to re- main together. This habit of isolation greatly impairs the national spirit of the people and thei~r capacity for mutual de- fence. Some years ago, when the power of the king was abso- lute, an attempt was made to consolidate the mountaineers. By a public decree, more than three hundred scattered families were brought together in the town of Syndekno, where abun- dance of water, a fertile soil, an excellent air, a municipal ad- ministration, and a guard of gendarmes, seemed to offer them every inducement to live in an orderly community. Houses were built, and the new life was begun. But the centrifugal temper of the people was too strong; and when the revolu- tion at Athens changed the character of the monarchy, the first use that they made of their political freedom was to break up their village and return to their former haunts in the forest. The three hundred families of the commune of Syndekno now occupy a space of fifteen miles in extent, and all society among them has ceased. In choosing a place for his cabin, the peasant of the Valtos is mainly guided by his love for pure air and fresh water, which are his especial luxuries. Living on the rudest food, he is yet fastidious in the quality of the fluid which he inhales and imbibes. He cannot drink from a muddy stream, nor can he abide mists and vapors. It is a penance for him to go down upon the heated plain, and gather his corn in the torment of 190 ACAItNANIA. [July, miasma and mosquitos. In the season of harvest, the women and children are often left solitary for days in their huts. Yet they seem to have no fear, and to await the return of their lords with a stoical contentment and submission. In the absence of the master, the oldest boy, even of tender years, is a suffi- cient protector. An instance which M. ileuzey mentions, where a boy of eight years enters at nightfall, orders his mother to prepare supper for him, and is addressed by her respectfully as My dear master, strikingly repeats the scene of the young Telemachus with the obedient Penelope. This child was already a goatherd of the mountains, and brought back, as his days spoil, an armful of wild pears for the even- ing feast of his family. The children of the Valtos peasants are children of nature. They grow up without education or training. The boast of Eastern Greece, that every child is in its schools, has no place in this western region. In forty houses you will not find five men who can read and write. A schoolmaster, peculiarly exposed to quarrels, is likely to be murdered before his teach- ing has borne much fruit. The literature of the people is confined to the prayers which they repeat mechanically, to a few stories which they tell around the fire, and to the monot- onous songs which they rehearse in Arab fashion, as they plod along on their journeys. Yet the people are precocious in their intellectual as in their physical development. They become cunning and wary in learning to thread the intrica- cies of their woods, and quick in their powers of perception. The boy of ten years knows how to handle his gun, to choose his way in the forest, to judge the character of the man he meets, and to maintain his own honor. The training of the people is that of a tribe of partisan warriors. From the earliest time, the inhabitants of this region were a race of fighting men famous for their subtilty and strategy, their surprises and their ambuscades. The nature of their country was favorable to this kind of warfare; and Thucydi- des, in his third book, tells of the catastrophe of the Ambra- ciots, rushing into Amphilochian ravines and ambuscades. M. Heuzey conjectures that the name of the people may have been derived from this peculiarity, and not from that of the 1863.] ACARNANIA. 191 Argive hero. A,acfnXoXos~ means one who sets snares, who attacks in a roundabout manner. It is the glory of the mountaineers that they resemble their ancestors in this, that when they open the tombs they do not find coins and medallions, but only black drinking-cups and rusty lance- heads. At intervals they have been willing to sell their ser- vice to the Turkish rulers as a mountain police, but always with the reservation of their rights and their pride. They could even force the government to accept their service, by threatening to come down upon the villages as wolves, if it would not employ them as guards. To destroy them in their own fastnesses has always been an attempt utterly futile. They have not waited to be captured, but have burned their cabins, finding refuge in the caves and chasms where no pursuing foot would dare to follow them. Yet the men of the Yaltos, though keen as savages in their way of warfare, are not a deceitful race. M. ileuzey avers that they are singularly frank and truthful, and relates an instance of the importance attached to the word once given. A peasant had promised to bring to him an inscription, and on the next day he saw the man coming, all out of breath, carrying an enormous stone, which he had brought nearly a mile. If I had known it was so heavy, said he, I would not have told you of it. But why did you not go there with me? why burden yourself with such a weight? asked M. Heuzey. Because I did not want to appear as a liar, N~ ,w~) /3 poD~at 4JEVUT~9, was the answer. There are very few parts of Greece, we imagine, in which conscience is tender in that direction. Excessive regard for plighted faith is not more a virtue of the modern ilellenes than of the countrymen of Aristophanes; and what Paul quotes from Epimenides con- cerning the Cretans is not very wide of justice as a general formula for the mass of the Greek nation. The men of the Valtos are loyal to their leaders. Recog- nizing no right of control in time of peace, they readily follow in warlike expeditions certain captains who lead them by he- reditary right. The chiefs, living apart like the peasants, have each a band of retainers, upon whom they can call with confi- dence and count with certainty. The distinction of the resi 192 ACAnNANTA. [July, dence of the leader is mainly that it is larger, more solid, and more conspicuous than the houses of the peasants, situated where he can overlook the woods in which are concealed the homes of the retainers, and can make signal to them if they are needed. The magnificence of his dwelling consists of a square of white walls, furniture of dirty boards, and a guard of poorly-clothed pallilcars, kept in the service rather by a feeling of reverence than by any liberality of pay. The peasant of the Yaltos is by preference and by pride a soldier, disdaining the lot of a tiller of the soil, and ready to sacrifice any chance of profit in peaceful industry to the ex- citement of guerilla warfare. Drill he does not like. The strait uniform of European soldiers fatigues and disgusts him. The Greek vest and fustanella are his ideal of beauty and comfort in a soldiers costume. The long Albanian gun, which misses fire at every third discharge, is his serviceable weapon; and even in labor he keeps this ready to his hand. The weapon and the costume are alike associated with the military traditions of the land, with victories over the infidels, and the defence of homes against invaders. The golden age of the Waltos, to which the mountaineers delight to look back, is that period before the Turkish invasion which they call the period of Spain. There is no evidence that either Spain or Spaniards ever had any right in the land, and the phrase is probably an incorrect description of the time wben the Neapolitan family of Tocco, vassals of Spain, had do- minion in the lonian Islands and in this part of Greece. They point to the ruins which remain in the land, to vestiges of former wealth and culture, as a proof of what it was in this golden age. One of their legends tells how the Sultan and the king of Spain, playing at cards together, instead of silver and gold, made the stake of the game to be the cities and provinces of the Yaltos. The Sultan won; but when he came to the pos- session of his prize, the king answered, I staked the land, the trees, the rocks, of the Yaltos, but not the men, and took away with him to the country of the Franks the whole popu- lation, leaving to the infidel ruler a deserted territory. Only some scattered mountaineers remained in the fastnesses, and from these the present race is descended. ACAIINANIA. 193 1863.] The site of the Yaltos which has the most distinguished traditional fame is the village of Phloriadha, situated on the ruins of an ancient Hellenic fortress. So splendid was this that, according to the legend, when the villagers danced in the market-place, the gold upon their garments dazzled the eyes of those who looked on from the other side of the val- ley. The national songs celebrate the richness and glory, the plethoric purses and well-stocked girdles, of the men of the once favored city. It is now the most miserable of hamlets, with a dozen huts, and a few families squalid in poverty and pining in famine and fever. The only artist whom IMI. Heuzey seems to have found in the Valtos was a sculptor in wood, skilled in ornamenting with figures and bas-reliefs, in the ancient Byzantine style, the cups and pipe-bowls which he carved from the larger roots of the heath-tree. This native genius, working at his own pleas- ure, and not for hire, only obeyed in his designs the traditions of his land. His originality was unconscious imitation. Even in the woods, and leading a wild life, he was attracted to those grotesque and distorted forms of which, not the scenes of nature around him, but the legends of his faith gave him the type. It is singular that the ancient Byzantine art should have its modern representative in one of the wildest regions of Europe. This description of the men of the Yaltos must be greatly modified when we speak of the men of the Xeromeros. In comparison with the mountaineers, the men of the plain are civilized ; and their broad and fertile domain seems to them to be to the rocks and ravines of the northern region what Canaan was to Sinai, and Esheol with its grapes to Edom with its cav- erns. In the song which they sing in their dances, the opening lines contrast Arta and the Yaltos, fit only to be turned to rock and swallowed up, with the Xeromeros, blessed of Heaven, the land of good wines and pretty maidens. H Apra ~-i4rpa vcL yEVC, KaL 6 Bc~XroK V6 I3OVXLa$y. T6 & ALO TO Z?7pO/~LEpO, 6 OE6S V6 r6 ~vXd$~, Hay ~XEL r6 7XVKa KfJCIO a ~at r6 6tLopja KopL1-~ta. To the men of the Xeromeros the men of the Valtos are savages, wolves, one-eyed monsters. As the Jews had their VOL. XCVII.NO. 200. 17 194 ACAIINANIA. [July, proverb about the Nazarenes, so the southern race of Acarnania have their proverb, BaXr?~o9 Kat KaXOS~ ~ytvcvat; How can a man be of the Yaltos, and yet be good? This conceit of the more civilized Acarnanians is but par- tially justified by their manners, and the race of the plain seems to be essentially the race of the mountains, somewhat tamed and softened. They have the same warlike, bold, rest- less spirit, the same ready hospitality, the same frankness and love of truth, even in larger measure. The ~btXovt,ura, which is their special characteristic, is accompanied by a generous and gentle courtesy, which will not abuse the spirit of rivalry. They have an open countenance, fine features, tall stature and easy and dignified deportment. Unlike the men of the Valtos, they are gregarious, live in villages, and are fond of society. Their houses are built on the slopes of hills or on terraces, are open to the sun, two stories in height, and tiled with white stone. A love of show appears in their construc- tion. Every one is a landholder, and, as the territory is large in proportion to the population, every one has land enough. There is rather a lack of labor than a lack of land. Never- theless, the southern Acarnanians are a military, and not an agricultural people. The old families are mostly descended from ancient warriors, and they choose to hire the service of peasants from the neighboring lonian Islands rather than work with their own hands. With every season, a fresh company of farmers cross from Cephalonia and St. Maura, bringing with them spades and hoes to create harvests for the owners of the soil. Some of these farmers are paid by the day; others divide the products with the owners; others, still, hire portions of the land and cultivate it on their own account. These emigrant farmers are not treated by the proud Acarnanians as menials or as servants, but are received as equals, and wel- comed as guests. The different taste of the land-owner does not make him unjust to the tiller of the soil. Not only is the profit mutual, but the courtesy and good feeling are mutual. As Israel, remembering that he had found home and welcome in Egypt, must treat Egyptians with kindness if they should come into the land of promise, so the lords of the Acarnanian plain must remember that the islands beyond had given them refuge 1863.] ACARNANIA. 195 in their need, and must return the ancient kindness. The surplus labor of the islands finds ample opportunity in these large fields, which yield such abundance. In the Yaltos there are no schools and no teaching; but in the villages of the Xeromeros there are almost always schools of some kind, private or public. The scattered population, losing this advantage, have a sort of traditional education, in the oral accounts of their history handed down from father to son. They mark five epochs in their annals, reckoning backward from the last Greek Revolution; to wit, the epoch of the Ala- banda, the Russian insurrection of the last century; the epoch of the Venetians; the epoch of the Turkish conquest; the epoch of Spain or of the Frank dominion; and, finally, all pre~ vious time, which is to them the time of Hellenic rule, the age of their highest traditional glory, when the land was covered with cities, and the men were a race of giants, lifting by main strength into their places the huge rocks which still remain in the ruined temples, castles, and walls. M. ileuzey found in the life of the Xeromeros the finest illustration in Modern Greece of the manners of the ilellenic people, as pictured in the fourteenth book of the Odyssey. All the spirited details of this scene of domestic confusion appeared as often as he knocked at a peasants door and sought hospitality. The same familiarity between high and low, the prince, the swineherd, and the beggar, appeared in the easy equality with which all classes sat down around the common table, every one helping himself with his own hands to the viands before him. Of ~3 E7r ovELaO oL/La 71-pOKEL/leva ~ taXXoy. And after the meal the interminable stories and the infinity of questions recalled still more vividly the Homeric diescrip- tion. The Greeks are everywhere a race of story-tellers, far more so than the Arabs, to whom this habit is generally sup- posed to belong by eminence. They are more loquacious and they listen better than their Semitic neighbors. The price of hospitality in Acarnania is that the guest shall submit to be questioned, and shall listen patiently to the stories which his host has to relate. These stories, frequently of personal adven 196 ACARNANIA. [July, ture, are sometimes rather startling. The tale of Ulysses, in the thirteenth book of the Odyssey, of his having murdered the son of Idomeneus, was more than paralleled by a confession which M. Heuzey heard from one of the most respectable in- habitants of Acarnania, who had welcomed him to his house. Hardly had the first salutations passed when the entertainer informed his guest that he was an Jonian of Cephalonia, who had left his native island to escape being hung; that he had killed his uncle and two cousins in a fit of anger; and yet that, after all, he was not a bad fellow. Such a story, of the act of an alien, cannot be fairly used to describe the moral standard of native Acarnanians. Yet this man, in spite of his crimes, was rich, popular, and in an honorable position. No one seemed to think him the worse for his deeds of blood. The native Acarnanians of the Yaltos and the Xeromeros are iiot the only people in the land who deserve notice. There is a race of Karagounis, or waiidering Wallachians, who come every winter and encamp with their flocks on the plains of the province, whose curious manners are not to be overlooked. They are an offshoot from the larger Ronmanic tribes, which inhabit the principalities of the Danube, and they have strayed thus far from their proper abode to enjoy the freedom of a constitutional Christian kingdom. They are allowed to lead in the country a nomad life, on the single condition that they shall not cross the frontier or enter the Turkish domain. They can pasture their sheep in the public forests and the wild plains along the Acheloiis, and the only tax required of them is a tax upon each head of their flocks. Their name, Kara- gounis, comes from the black caps which they wear, since in the IRomaic tongue the word Icara means black, and the word gonna is applied to the rude cape thrown over the shoulders, and used to cover the head. Another name by which they are known, Apflav& T~,3XaXot, is derived from their ancient place of encampment on the Albanian frontier. The name which they prefer, and which they claim with true Wallachian pride, is that of Rouman; and if the purity of their vowel sounds is to be the test of purity of blood, they have more of the Latin blood than the Wallachs of the larger province. Most of them are able to speak three languages fluently, the IRon- 1863.] ACARNANIA. 197 man, the Albanian, and the Greek; and this ability fairly distinguishes them from another nomad tribe of Acarnania, the Sarakatzanes, to whom Greek is the native and the only language. In other parts of Greece the Wallachs are station- ary, live in towns, occupy themselves with agriculture, and have even become merchants and public functionaries. In Acarnania, on the contrary, the Wallach is a true Bedouin, shifting his abode with every season, and unable to fasten his interest or his attachment to any place. The tribe have a superstitious notion that, if one of their number should fix his home upon any one spot, should buy a field and build a house, he would fall sick, his flesh would rot away, and worms would feed upon him. The separate groups of these Karagounis comprise from fifty to a hundred families, the name for each of which groups, including their flocks and tents, is ~ a park or sheepfold. In the whole province there are a dozen of these stana~, making a population of some eight hundred fam- ilies in all. In travelling, they use for dwellings black tents, like those of the Arabs of Palestine. In their longer abode, they construct huts of branches and leaves, some of which are large, divided into compartments, furnished with rude utensils, and even ornamented. Great dogs guard the door- way of the cabin. The chief of each group holds his office by hereditary right, by the influence of wealth, and by the super- stitious fear of the people. He is the richest of the tribe, owning sometimes half of all the flocks. He claims to be descended from mighty men, atavis edite regiba s and the Greek name, Sicouteris, by which he is known, seems to show that his ancestors were officers of the Byzantine Em- peror. lie is the umpire in disputes, the commissioner to the authorities of the province, the mediator with robbers; he makes the bargains for pasturage, fixes the day when the migration must commence and cease, and stands as the centre and head of all affairs in the tribe. He is supported by a tax upon the families, according to their property, a tax which he himself assesses and collects, and which none refuse to pay. Any additional expense to which he is subject is at the charge of the community. The wealth of the Karagounis is in their sheep and goats. 17* 198 ACARNAMA. [July, A few raise horses and mules, enough for the transport of goods, but the majority are shepherds, proud of their occupa- tion, and devoted to it with an intense love. The Karagouni enthusiast is unwilling to leave for a moment the sound and the sight of his flocks. He sleeps always in the open air, in the snow or in the rain, with one eye and one ear open, ready to start upon the least sinister sound or motion. The tinkling of the sheep-bells is his lullaby, and if it dies away upon his ear, he mechanically changes his place, though half asleep, and goes to lie where he can hear it more distinctly. Unlike the genuine Acarnanian, he has no warlike tastes, nor from his gigantic size, his broad breast, and his Herculean shoulders is it to be inferred that he is a dangerous foe. He is a bearer of burdens rather than of arms. The Karagouni woman is hardly inferior to the man in strength,in en duraiice, aud in ability to meet privation. Her industry is incessant, and as she returns from the fountain, bearing on one shoulder the bag of washed clothing, and on the other a barrel of water, she plies the distaff upon the way, to lose no time. It. Heuzey saw a young bride already busily at work in her weaving, on the morning after her marriage. The dowry of a Karagouni bride, indeed, is all in the stuffs woven by her own hand, and her honor lies in her skill as a weaver. The Karagounis are very careful to preserve their purity of blood. No daughter of the tribe can marry any Greek, how- ever tempting or high his position. A Greek woman may by marriage be adopted into the Karagounis, but the counterpart to this is not tolerated. The marriage customs of the people quite distinctly show their descent from Roman ancestors. The man buys his wife by a bargain like that of the coernplio; the scarlet wool, and the apple planted upon the roof of the bridegrooms house, recall the Roman marriages, in which the wool was the sign of domestic labors, and the apple of love and maternity; the anointing of the threshold when the bride descends shows that she is now uxor or unxor; and the rush for morsels of the bride-cake is only the former confarreatio, slightly varied. The first joy of the marriage festival is all pagan, and the religious rites come in only after the bride has been conducted to her husbands house, has passed a night 1863.1 ACARNANIA. 199 there, and has been recognized as a wife. On the following day the priest comes to give the nuptial benediction and recite the prayers, and the feasting commences again, to last for two days longer. The woman is virtually a slave in the house of her husband; until a child is born to her, she must be dumb in his presence, must obey every order, and must never pre- sume to address him directly. These wandering Wallachs are permitted in the country on account of the revenue which their taxed flocks bring. But the feeling between them and the Acarnanian peasant is any- thing but kind and cordial. They are hateful to the sight of the owners of the lands, who naturally dread the incursions which their unmanageable flocks may make from the public domain upon private estates. In the popular imagination, these vagabonds are infidels, compelled to this migratory life for the punishment of some former crime. The conduct of the Karagounis helps somewhat to justify this charge. They are cunning to seize every chance of pilfering from the fields of their civilized neighbors, and are by no means heedful that the shepherds shall deliver the sheep from the temptation of the green wheat. The Greeks are proverbially artful; but the Greek race of Acarnania is no match for these experts in deception, who are perpetually on the watch, who move by night as well as by day, and whose stratagem is ruled by an infinite patience. The Karagounis have the advantage of their Greek neighbors, too, in their solid union and their common interest. They have no divisions, and obey their chiefs im- plicitly. The Greeks, on the contrary, have no unity. Each family has its own interests, and there are bitter rivalries in every village and neighborhood. The contempt which they put upon the nomad race does not prevent this race from thriving after its manner, any more than the contempt for the Jews in other lands hinders them from getting gold and influence. These few notes may serve to give an idea of the present condition of the outlying province of the Grecian kingdom, so visible and yet so unknown, so near and yet so far. But a traveller in this province is surprised to find that here the re- mains of the ancient civilization are more abundant and better preserved than in any other part of the classic land. Every- 200 ACARNANIA. [July, where the grand ruins show the traces of the strong, active, and able race which oiice built cities and led a crowded life where are now these thick forests and neglected plains. The mould of ages has here rather protected than destroyed the monuments of early times; and in these woods the gateways and turrets of castles are still standing, as strong as when they were first fixed in their places. From Argos Amphilochicon, where the whole line of the ancient wall is visible, aiid where M. Heuzey measured the front of the four great towers, each nearly twenty feet square, to ~IEniades at the mouth of the Acheloiis, where the Cyclopean walls still testify to the strength of the Macedonian fortifications, the whole country is diversified by the sites and relics of ancient cities. Along the valley of the Bjakos (the ancient Inachos, as M. Heuzey believes) is a line of fortresses, some of which have walls six feet in thickness, and have witnessed the strifes of twenty cen- turies. The long contest of the Ambracians with the Amphi- lochians, so splendidly described by Thucydides, can be studied on the spot from its monuments. In the southern Valtos, near the small village of Raravassaras, now the capital of the prov- ince, are the Cyclopean walls of a once considerable city, which M. ileuzey decides to be the ancient Limn~a. Here there is a striking refutation of the oft-repeated charge that the Greeks did not understand the use of the arch. Vaults and doorways, which evidently are earlier than the Roman invasion, show a knowledge of this kind of structure as positive as that left in the great sewer or the triumphal monuments of the city of the kings and the C~sars. The Grecian arch is less finished, and often lacks the keystone ; but its shape is the same, its curve is as regular, and it has resisted as successfully the shocks and decay of time. In the defile of Xerokambos is another curious ruin, which proves that the Greeks occasionally made use of cement in their constructions. In most instances, their stones were bound by no artificial tie, and were so nicely chiselled and squared that mere juxtaposition was quite sufficient. But in the cistern of the fortress of Peleginriatza, the stones are all joined by a very hard cement, making the reservoir perfectly water-tight. On the external surface of the wall of this cistern, not only are 1863.] 201 ACARNANIA. the blocks beautifully bevelled, but there are projecting blocks from each separate course, arranged in the form of stops, by which one could ascend from the ground to the top. On the top of the cistern was a roof of tiles, as the fragments scattered around still conclusively show. Stratos, the greatest city of Acarnania, according to Thu- cydides, justifies its former renown in the remains of its towers, its temples, and its theatres. A double line of fortified wall guarded the inner enclosure; and the fluted columns of more than one house of the gods bear evidence that the people were religious. M. ileuzey gives two funeral inscriptions which he found on this site. From the ruins in the defile of Aetos we can easily understand how Agesilaus could find such difficul- ties in driving back the handful of mountaineers which de- fended the pass against him. In the region of Yonitza, in the northwest angle of Acarnania, medi~val ruins are profusely mingled with Hellenic remains, and modern villages, often bearing the names of Greek saints, use the ancient walls and materials. We shall not attempt even to condense M. lieu- zeys researches in Agios Yasilios, which he decides to be the site of Thyrrheon, where the Acarnanian League was sometimes accustomed to meet; or in Agios Hilias, which he believes to be the site of the Heracleia of Acarnania, while he supposes the chapel where he found painted tiles to be on the spot of an ancient temple of Apollo ; or in Agios Petros, the successor to Anactorion, the commercial port of the province, near which was fought the battle of Actium; or in Kandila, the ancient Alyzia, sacred to Hercules, whose honor is attested in the beautiful bas-reliefs still remaining; or in the long valley of Dragamesti, rich at once in present possessions and in ancient monuments; or in Fal~o-mani, and Matropolis; or in ~IEniades and the sur- rounding region, in the description of which so many interest- ing questions of architecture are discussed. In his account of ancient monuments, M. 1-leuzey shows himself to be a sharp observer, a sagacious judge, and a critic without prejudice. The volume from which we have drawn most of these details is one of those fruits of travel which have done much in these latter years to give France its eminent place in works of this kind. It is a region almost unknown to modern geographers 202 THE AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, BOSTON. [July, and tourists which the perseverance of this scholar has opened. What M. Langlois has done for Cilicia and the Cydnus, M. ileuzey has done for Acarnania and the Achelojis. Archa~o1o- gists now-, in visiting Greece, will not be content to omit from their survey a part which is so rich in historical monuments, and so free from the ordinary annoyances of Grecian travel. Some particulars M. ileuzey has neglected to give, which we should have been glad to know. He has not even estimated the numbers of the Acarnanian people, or the value of their trade, or the character of their worship. There are many things yet to be learned in that hospitable land, by one who can master the dialect and will mingle freely with the people. We have yet to find confirmation of the averment of Pliny, that there are mines of iron under the soil, or of the later conjec- ture, that copper is in the rocks, and coal in the hills. The curious windings of the Achelojis, the father of waters in an- cient Hellas, are yet to be minutely described, as is also that singular structure of coast, by which the land slopes inward, and the highest mountains are nearest to the sea. ART. VIII. 1. Select Remains of the REV. JOHN MASON. l2mo. pp. 252. 2. The Sisters: a lllemoir of Elizabeth H., Abbie A., and Sarah F. Dickerman. By REV. ISRAEL F. WARREN. iGmo. pp. 283. 3. The Christian .Zjlinisters Affectionate Advice to a Harried Couple. By REV. JAMES DEAN, A. M. Including a Letter from the REV. HENRY VENN, A. M. With Select Poems. l6mo. pp. 128. 4. The Wicket Gate: Short Narratives of the Turning of Sinners to God. With Words of Counsel and Warning. iGmo. pp. 258. 5. The hidden Life; and the Life of Glory. By REV. HUB- BARD WINSLOW, D. D., Author of Intellectual Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, Christian Doctrines, etc. iGmo. pp. 254.

202 THE AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, BOSTON. [July, and tourists which the perseverance of this scholar has opened. What M. Langlois has done for Cilicia and the Cydnus, M. ileuzey has done for Acarnania and the Achelojis. Archa~o1o- gists now-, in visiting Greece, will not be content to omit from their survey a part which is so rich in historical monuments, and so free from the ordinary annoyances of Grecian travel. Some particulars M. ileuzey has neglected to give, which we should have been glad to know. He has not even estimated the numbers of the Acarnanian people, or the value of their trade, or the character of their worship. There are many things yet to be learned in that hospitable land, by one who can master the dialect and will mingle freely with the people. We have yet to find confirmation of the averment of Pliny, that there are mines of iron under the soil, or of the later conjec- ture, that copper is in the rocks, and coal in the hills. The curious windings of the Achelojis, the father of waters in an- cient Hellas, are yet to be minutely described, as is also that singular structure of coast, by which the land slopes inward, and the highest mountains are nearest to the sea. ART. VIII. 1. Select Remains of the REV. JOHN MASON. l2mo. pp. 252. 2. The Sisters: a lllemoir of Elizabeth H., Abbie A., and Sarah F. Dickerman. By REV. ISRAEL F. WARREN. iGmo. pp. 283. 3. The Christian .Zjlinisters Affectionate Advice to a Harried Couple. By REV. JAMES DEAN, A. M. Including a Letter from the REV. HENRY VENN, A. M. With Select Poems. l6mo. pp. 128. 4. The Wicket Gate: Short Narratives of the Turning of Sinners to God. With Words of Counsel and Warning. iGmo. pp. 258. 5. The hidden Life; and the Life of Glory. By REV. HUB- BARD WINSLOW, D. D., Author of Intellectual Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, Christian Doctrines, etc. iGmo. pp. 254. 1863.] THE AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, BOSTON. 203 6. The Senses. With Numerous Illustrations. iGmo. pp. 192. ~T. The Celestial City: Glimpses within the Gates. By REV. JAMES D. BURNS, M. A., Hampstead, London. l6mo. pp. 128. 8. Calls to the Saviour. Come to Jesus. Call to Prayer. Quench not the Spirit. iGmo. pp. 64, 60, 64. 9. Uncle Pauls Stories for Boys and Girls. Small 4to. pp. 144. Boston: American Tract Society. THE line which divides the races of men into civilized and barbarous or semi-barbarous is distinct and universally recog- nized. The Christian nations are unlike all the others in their intellectual, political, social, and moral life. Nor can there be a reasonable doubt as to the cause of this difference. On the one side are found the Christian teacher, a Christian literature, and Christian institutions ; on the other, the instruments and ele- ments of civilization are not known. The Bible lies at the basis of the one form of society; the Koran, the Shaster, or an unwritten Fetichism, is the foundation of the other. As Christianity is not the product of the human mind, but a system revealed through the writings of a limited number of inspired men, there is a manifest necessity for some provision by which it may reach the eye and the ear of each generation and of each individual. For the purpose of teaching by the ear, a class of living instructors is provided. For the purpose of teaching through the eye, the Church was for ages dependent upon the slow process of writing, and consequently on a very limited multiplication of copies of the Scriptures and religious essays. This, however sufficient for the days of her pupilage, and however adapted ultimately to the purposes of a hierarchy who regarded the Church as their heritage and ignorance as the mother of devotion, was not sufficient for the purposes of the Head of the Church. Truth the peculiar, sublime rev- elations contained in the Christian Scriptures must go forth to the ends of the earth, accompanying every life-giving breath of heaven and every quickening beam of the sun. The prayer of the Apostle must be answered, that the Word of the Lord may have free course and be glorified. Its inspiring power 204 TIrE AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, BOSTON. [July, must be felt alike in the palace and in the hut. The people must be instructed in the character and will of their God and Saviour. The invitations and promises, the warnings and re- proofs, of the Word of Life, must reach every human being. The command of the Master is, Preach the Gospel to every creature; and where the means of preaching it to the ear are not possessed, it must be preached to the eye. But for this end the press had become indispensable. The wants of the world called for this boon from the Father of lights, from whom every good gift cometh down. And, as if to mark the chief design of its beneficent donor, the first product of the press, when, in 1450, Gutenberg, Faust, and Sch~iffer had brought it to sufficient perfection to print a large book, was the Latin Bible. But, like every other gift of Divine Goodness, the printing-press has been perverted; becoming the instrument of error as well as of truth, of evil as well as of good; employed alike by the Reformers and the Encyclo- pedists, the friends and the foes of Christianity. It was probably in the middle of the seventeenth century that the first institution was organized to publish and distrib- ute religious books, not for private profit, but with reference solely to the public good. In 16