CHAPTER I.

Departure from Philadelphia. Geology of the Alleghanies. Cumberland Road. Wheeling.

THE success which attended the expedition to the Rocky Mountains, and the important information which it imparted concerning the nature of the valley drained by the Missouri and its tributaries, of which nothing was known but what had been observed by Lewis and Clarke, induced the government of the United States to continue within its limits. The first object which appeared to it deserving of was the district of country bounded by the Missouri, the Mississippi, and the Northern Boundary of the United States.

This triangular section includes about three hundred miles of longitude and seven hundred of latitude. Governor Cass had, on his late expedition, explored the southern shore of Lake Superior to the mouth of St. Louis river, and the communication between Fond du Lac and the Mississippi, which river he ascended to the Upper Red Cedar or Cassina Lake, and then descended to the mouth of the Wisconsan. By this journey much light was 2* 0018 10 thrown upon the history of the Upper Mississippi, which was previously known only through the fascinating, but imperfect, and in many instances, fabulous accounts of old travellers, and through the hasty observations of the late General, (then Lieut.) Pike, an officer whose zeal made him overlook difficulties which would have arrested a less hardy explorer, but who unfortunately was not provided with the means of making accurate observations.

All the later travellers who had visited the Upper Mississippi concurred in mentioning a river, discovered at the end of the seventeenth century, and known by the name of the St. Peter. This river, which discharges itself into the Mississippi at a short distance below the Falls of St. Anthony, had not been visited by any traveller but Carver, whose account of it, published about the year 1778, contains many circumstances which might induce us to question the accuracy of his report.

The extent of the fur trade carried on by the British and American trading companies in that part of the country, the report of the easy communication between the head of the St. Peter and that of the Red River, whose waters running into Lake Winnepeek finally empty themselves into Hudson's Bay, and the various contradictory reports of the quality of the sell and the nature of the country on Red River, resulting from the conflicting interests of the two rival British companies, made it an object of interest to our government, to obtain correct information upon the country which lies on the St. Peter and the Red River to the 49th parallel of north latitude, as well as to ascertain the nature of the country along our, as yet unsurveyed, northern boundary.

Accordingly, it was determined in the spring of 1828, “by Executive, that an expedition be immediately 0019 11 fitted out for exploring the river St. Peter's and the country situated on the northern boundary of the United States between the Red River of Hudson's Bay and Lake Superior.”

The command of the expedition was intrusted to Major S. H. Long, and he received orders from the War Department, dated April 25, 1823, of which the following is an extract:—

“The route of the expedition will be as follows:—commencing at Philadelphia, thence proceeding to Wheeling in Virginia, thence to Chicago via Fort Wayne, thence to Fort Armstrong or Dubuque's Lead Mines, thence up the Mississippi to Fort St. Anthony, thence to the source of the St. Peter's river, thence to the point of intersection be tween Red River and the forty-ninth degree of north latitude, thence along the northern boundary of the United States to Lake Superior, and thence homeward by the Lakes.

“The object of the expedition is to make a general survey of the country on the route pointed out, together with a topographical description of the same, to ascertain the latitude and longitude of all the remarkable points, to examine and describe its productions, animal, vegetable, and mineral; and to enquire into the character, customs, &c. of the Indian tribes inhabiting the same.” *

* Reference was also made to the instructions which were issued by the War Department at the commencement of the Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, an extract of which is inserted in the Journal of that expedition.

The advanced state of the season admitting of no delay, the necessary preparations for the expedition were hastily made, and the party left Philadelphia on the 30th of April—consisting of Stephen H. Long , Major United States' 0020 12 Topographical Engineers, commanding the Expedition— Thomas Say , Zoologist and Antiquary— William H. Keating , Mineralogist and Geologist— Samuel Seymour , Landscape Painter and Designer. Messrs. Say and Keating were likewise appointed joint literary journalists to the expedition, and charged with the collecting of the requisite information concerning the names, numbers, manners, customs, &c. of the Indian tribes on the route. *

* Lieut. Andrew Talcott of the United States' Topographical Engineers, had been appointed second in command of the expedition, and was to have assisted the commander in the astronomical and topographical department, but his services being required in another direction, James Edward Colhoun was appointed astronomer and assistant topographer, and leaving the City of Washington, proceeded to Columbus, (Ohio,) where he joined the party on the 20th of May.

Dr. Edwin James , Botanist, &c. to the Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, and Surgeon in the United States' army, had been appointed botanist. geologist, and physician to the expedition. In pursuance of which, orders were sent to him at Albany, where he then was, to join the party at Wheeling or Columbus, and as it was apprehended that he might have already left that place on his Way to Bellefontaine on the Mississippi, (to which post he had been previously ordered,) letters were written with a view to intercept him, but which unfortunately did not reach him in season, and at the time when the party passed through Wheeling he was in Pittsburg, where he remained until it was too late for him to overtake them. By this unfortunate misunderstanding the expedition was deprived of the services of this active officer. An apprehension that some unforeseen event might prevent Dr. James from joining the expedition, induced the commanding officer to obtain a division of the services allotted to him, and the appointment of Mr. Keating to the geological department, while the botanical was reserved for Dr. James. It continued vacant during the expedition, a circumstance which was much to be regretted. Mr. Say undertook however collect such plants as might appear to him interesting, but with that diffidence with which a man will attend to a task with which he does not profess to be conversant.

The party travelled in light carriages from Philadelphia to Wheeling, where they disposed of them and 0021 13 purchased horses in exchange. This part of the journey was performed in eleven days. The usual route through Lancaster, Columbia, York, and Gettysburg, was travelled. Here they left the Pittsburg turnpike road and reached Hagerstown in Maryland by a cross road; from Hagerstown they continued along the Maryland turnpike road to Cumberland, where it unites with the national road, upon which they travelled to Wheeling.

From Philadelphia to Wheeling, the Geologist has an opportunity of observing almost every formation, from the old primitive to the coal strata. On leaving Philadelphia, the primitive soon disappears, and is replaced by the transition limestone, which is of a blue colour, very much intermixed with quartz in veins running through the mass. There are also patches of white limestone which are observed in sundry places, and which being of a highly crystalline character, might almost induce us to rank this limestone as primitive.

We find occasionally breaking through the limestone, hills composed of amphibolic rocks; this accident is more frequent as we approach the Brandywine. These hills are very readily discernible from the undulations of the limestone country, by the difference in their outward form, which in the limestone hills is mammillary, constituting low and rounded swells; while the amphibolic hills are steep, and covered with a wilder vegetation. Beyond Lancaster the rocks assume a slaty appearance, which increased as we approached the Susquehanna. At Columbia we had an opportunity of observing the rock as it is laid bare in the bed of the river. It there appears to be the red sandstone, and is that mentioned by Mr. MacIure in his observations on the geology of the United States. It constitutes part of a red sandstone formation, which crosses through the 0022 14 states of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. This formation extends in a general north-easterly direction. The rock appears to be nearly horizontally stratified, but from the slight inclination which it presents to the north; the strata are presumed to extend in a northeast and south-west direction.

The limestone and red sandstone, with its accompanying red slate, alternately appear on the west side of the Susquehanna. The limestone is generally found in the valleys, and the sandstone upon the acclivities of the hills, which are generally crowned with small patches of trap. This rock occurs, however, only upon the higher hills, where it seems to have protected the sandstone from decomposition.

On approaching Millerstown, the country assumes a more broken appearance; the limestone ceases, and indications of crystallization are visible in the rocks. Millerstown, (sometimes called Fairfield,) is situated on the eastern side, and at no great distance of that ridge which is generally called the South mountain, and which may be considered as the easternmost of the parallel ridges, which constitute the great chain of Alleghany mountains, at least in the southern part of Pennsylvania. In the vicinity of this place, there are masses of a calcareous breccia, in every respect similar to that found on the Potomac, and which has acquired of late a well-merited celebrity, on account of its having been used for the beautiful columns which adorn the interior of the Capitol, in the City of Washington. This breccia, which is too well known to require description, consists of fragments of limestone of very many kinds; differing in texture, colour, &c. all imbedded in a calcareous cement. Some of these fragments have a fine saccaroidal or subsacearoidal grain, while others are compact. 0023 15 There are also fragments of white quartz intermixed with those of limestone. The breccia appears to form partial deposits in the coves or valley basins of that vicinity.

In the neighbourhood of this town there are numerous indications of the existence of large deposits of copper. The ores of this metal have been found in many places, and excavations were commenced as far back as the year 1798. Some ore obtained at this place was sent to England, where it is said to have been worked to advantage. An attempt was made last year to resume the operations, but with no great success. The want of a person qualified to as to the best spots at which to commence the excavations, may be considered as the principal obstacle existing at present to the success of these works. The ore hitherto extracted is not sufficiently rich to warrant works to any great extent, but some specimens which were analysed last year in Mr. Keating's laboratory in the University of Pennsylvania, yielded as much as thirty per cent. That the smelting of this ore could be made profitable, if a sufficiency of it were obtained, appears from the circumstance, that a ton of the ore which was sent to Centre county, to be reduced at one of the iron works, yielded about three hundred weight of metal.

The ore discovered in this vicinity varies, but is for the most part a mixture of the oxidule, (red oxide,) with the green carbonate, the hydrate, the copper pyrites, the sulphuret of copper, and gray copper ore. The whole of it appears very much intermixed with siliceous matter. These masses of copper ore are in a talcose slate—they are to be observed everywhere. Doubts exist as to the manner in which they lie, the sides of the excavations had sunk in, so much, at the time the party passed through, that it was not in their power to determine that question; from the information 0024 16 which was received, it would appear probable, that the ore has been worked, in one place at least, on a vein running nearly east and west. The rock, as has been observed, is a talcose slate, which in some places appears to be penetrated with copper pyrites. These mines all lay in a hill known by the name of Jack's mountain; upon the top of which a porphyritic rock occurs. The crystals are of feldspar; the cement is of a red colour, and appears to be compact feldspar, ( petrosilex palaiopetre of de Saussure;) besides the crystals of feldspar, there are some of quartz and probably of mica. This porphyry appears principally upon the east side of the mountain towards the top—no indications of stratification were observable. The porphyry constitutes probably a subordinate formation in the talcose slate which reappears on the crest of the hill, and is there very abundantly studded with small crystals, which are presumed to be epidote. In descending on the west side of Jack's mountain, the blue limestone reappears very distinctly stratified, the strata running north-east and south-west, it dips in most places about 80° to the southeast. The dip varies however, being only in some places about 30°, as maybe very distinctly observed in the excavations made for cellars, &c. at Hagerstown.

This town is pleasantly situated in Washington county, Maryland, on the great turnpike road which leads from Baltimore to Cumberland. We saw here specimens of the white marble which occurs at Boonsborough, about ten miles south-east of Hagerstown. It is said to exist there in considerable quantities on the west side of the South mountain not far from its foot. It was at first mistaken for gypsum by the people in the neighbourhood, and very abundantly applied to manure their lands, and it was only after its inefficacy had been demonstrated by experience, that 0025 17 its true nature was ascertained. This marble is of the finest white, with a subsaccaroidal grain, and may become of great use in buildings; it is however too fine-grained for statuary purposes. An analysis of it was made with a view to ascertain its purity; it was found to consist entirely of carbonate of lime, with little or no foreign admixture. It certainly belongs to the primitive formation, and corroborates the opinion we had formed at Millerstown, that the primitive rocks reappear to the west of the red sandstone formation; a circumstance not stated in the geological observations of Mr. Maclure. It is probable, however, thai the appearance of the primitive there is but partial, and confined to certain localities, where it rises through the incumbent strata of transition rocks. There is an extensive cave or grotto in the blue limestone, about seven miles to the east of Hagerstown, which has not yet been fully explored.

From Hagerstown to Cumberland the mountains are numerous, and the works which have been executed for the road have in many places laid the rock bare, so as to make it structure apparent. We there see a great variety in the nature of the rocks, which however are observed uniformly to belong to the transition or secondary; the former being observed near to Hagerstown, and passing gradually into the latter, which occur very distinctly in the vicinity of Cumberland. At first, the blue limestone, with a considerable, through varying, dip to the south-east, is seen gradually passing into a slaty rock, which finally predominates, and is a transition clay-slate, probably the Grauwacken-shiefer of German mineralogists. This however is found in parallel directions, alternating, as is believed, with this limestone, on a distance several miles. After which, as we approach the North mountain, a sandstone of 3* 0026 18 apparently very ancient formation, and which we feel inclined to refer to the red sandstone formation, occurs. It frequently acquires a reddish colour; and being in great measure composed of quartz, assumes in some places the appearance of an eisenkiesel . Its stratification is very distinct, extending from north-east to south-west and clipping to the north-west. This stratification is not visible on both sides of the mountain. The eastern slope being carried upon the crests of the strata, which are very brittle a sort of soil is soon formed from the fragments of the rock, which entirely conceals it from view, but on the western slope it is very well marked. On the summit of the hill, numberless fragments of trap rock are strewed in every direction. To the west of this ridge we again strike the clay-slate, which continues along the valley of the Potomac, being interrupted by the appearance of the blue limestone in the traverse valleys of the Big and Little Conolaway Creeks. This slate differs very much from that described above as constituting the North mountain. The latter is a quartzose, the former an argillaceous slate; and the difference of dip is sufficient to distinguish them.

This clay-slate is formed of alternate layers of a very shistose mass and a more compact one. The layers vary in thickness, many of them however not exceeding a few inches. In the more compact layers there are indications of a globular structure consisting of concentric shales.

The slate is soon succeeded by a sandstone, which constitutes several of the mountains known by the local appellations of the Sideling, Town-hill, &c. It is not possible to determine with precision the spot at which the sandstone of coal formations commences, indeed we think it probable that no such limit exists in nature. The process may have continued without any marked interruption, 0027 19 from the time at which the transition formations were produced, until the coal and its accompanying strata had commenced to be formed. We observe, in most cases, that the slate and reddish sandstone occupy the base of the higher mountains, and constitute the whole of the lower ones; while the crest of the high hills is formed of a sandstone which in every respect resembles that of the coal formations. There seems likewise to be a difference in the organic remains contained in these rocks, for in the lower ones there are but vegetable impressions, (chiefly stems,) while in the superior strata, shells belonging to the genus Terebratula or Productus, are very frequently met with.

We had an opportunity of ascertaining that the slate which occupies the whole valley of the Potomac, in this district, varies in its dip; sometimes inclining to the south-east, and at other times to the north-west. In one spot we observed the change in the dip produced by a very gentle undulation, without any derangement or interruption in the stratification. Overlaying this slate, there is a limestone of a blueish colour, presenting signs of organic remains, and constituting Martin's Hill, which is one of the highest in the range. The limestone appears at first to be horizontally stratified, after which it assumes an inclined position, and on ascending becomes nearly vertical, while the top of the hill is crowned with large masses of limestone, quite free from stratification, and presenting only a very irregular division. Upon the summit of the mountain the limestone is cavernous, and contains many organic remains, among which the Terebratula and Productus are chiefly discernible. It is filled with veins of crystalline carbonate of lime, which in some places assumes regular forms.

From Cumberland to Wheeling the geology of the country is much simplified. The coal formation predominates 0028 20 without any interruption. It consists merely of alternating strata of slate-clay, sandstone, limestone, and coal. Of these the sandstone is the most abundant; it is generally fine-grained, composed principally of fragments of quartz, connected by a siliceous cement. In some cases there is much mica, and at times a little feldspar, so as to constitute in local formations a regenerated granite not unlike that observable in the coal basin of St. Etienne in France, but these are rather mineralogical curiosities, and can scarcely be considered as forming a feature in the geology of this part of the route. The stratification is nearly horizontal, and is very distinct wherever the slate-clay is found, but where this rock is deficient, the sandstone loses its stratified character, or at least ceases to present it in a distinct manner.

The sandstone frequently alternates with the slate-clay, and it is not uncommon to observe a real passage of the one into the other; in some cases, as in the neighbourhood of Cumberland, the slate-clay is very rare.

The limestone is compact, of a grayish or brownish colour, very argillaceous, emitting a strong argillaceous odour when breathed upon; it occurs in parallel Stratification with the above-mentioned rocks, and exists very abundantly all over the country, where it may be seen in many places alternating with the other strata; but we know of none where this can be so well observed as on the west bank of the Monongahela, in the neighbourhood of Brownsville, in those places where the road has been dug into the hill.

The coal has not yet been found to the eastward of Cumberland, but west of this town it occurs almost every where; it is found in beds which vary in thickness from an inch to several, sometimes ten, feet. It appears that 0029 21 these beds extend over the whole country, for the same may be traced for miles without any sensible alteration in its appearance. There are various beds at different levels and of different qualities, and it is from this circumstance, probably, that the coal of one neighbourhood is considered preferable to that of another, because they work upon beds different levels; yet it may be also that in some cases they work upon one and the same bed, the quality of which may be improved or impaired from accidental circumstances. Small excavations are made in numberless places so as to answer the wants of the consumers. It is generally obtained at the mouth of the pit for five dollars per hundred bushels, and is sometimes sold as low as four cents per bushel. In the town of Cumberland it usually sells for about ten dollars per hundred bushels.

The abundance of timber in that district, and the thinness of the population, have not yet rendered coal the exclusive fuel used, and it was not until we approached the Wheeling that we found coal exclusively used in lime and brick kilns.

The most common disposition of the strata presents the sandstone as the lowest member of the formation, above it is the coal, which is itself overlayed by the slate, and the limestone covers the whole, and becomes itself a substratum for a superior bed of sandstone, &c.

The only substances of any importance which accompany these rocks, are iron pyrites, and probably the white pyrites. These minerals are so abundant throughout rocks, that they in many places produce a very rapid decomposition and destruction, and unfit them for many uses of domestic economy; thus many of the beds of coal which would otherwise prove valuable, are so completely pervaded with pyrites that it is impossible to use them as fuel in 0030 22 private houses. This will probably ever prevent their being applied to metallurgical purposes. The pyrites not only penetrate the coal and its accompanying slate, but they extend even into the sandstone, to which they in many eases impart a tendency to decomposition, so great as to render it unfit for use as a building stone. To the universal diffusion of this mineral we must attribute the circumstance that the country about Wheeling abounds in mineral springs, strongly charged with sulphates of iron and alumine. Indeed it is a matter of considerable surprise, that with such an abundance of vitriolic matter at hand, and with an inexhaustible store of coal in immediate contact with it, no attempt has as yet been made to derive advantage from it, by converting it into green vitriol, alum, and sulphate of alumine. No doubt can be entertained of the facility with which this might be effected, and of the great advantage which would attend it. There is no place we think, where chemical manufactures of every kind could thrive to such advantage as at Wheeling. With coal mines even in the very heart of the town, with a constant and never-failing navigation, by means of which the products of its industry may be sent to a certain market, backed by a rich agricultural district to support the excess of its population, Wheeling seems destined to rise to great affluence, becoming in a manner the emporium through which all the commerce between the east and west must pass.

We were much disappointed at not finding in the rocks as many organic impressions as we had expected; we could discover no shells in the rocks, though we have reason to believe that the limestone must in some places abound in them.

In the sandstone there are many vegetable impressions, 0031 23 apparently of palms. The vegetable matter had completely disappeared, leaving only an impression, which, although very distinct, was not sufficiently well characterised to allow of a determination of its nature. This sandstone is of a grayish colour, middling-sized grain, and appears to be very micacious in some parts, while in others it consists of quartz nearly pure. The impressions are not very large, seldom more than ten or twelve inches long, and lay parallel to the stratification of the rock. At the hill over which the national road passes, in the immediate vicinity of Wheeling, the sandstone is about fifty or sixty feet in height, divided into layers of variable thickness: over this is a stratum of coal eight feet thick. In this coal, as well as in the accompanying slate, there are many remains of vegetables converted into pure charcoal, and entirely free from bitumen. These though numerous, are too imperfect to allow of determining the species to which they belong. This bed, as well as the other parallel ones, when not too much intermixed with pyrites, is worked by galleries running into the hill. The works are very carelessly carried on and the waste of coal is great. The propping is very rough and unsafe, frequent accidents occur from this circumstance. The ventilation is not understood, and many works have been abandoned from the foulness of the air, no attempt being made to correct it. No inconvenience has yet been experienced from inflammable gases; but the carbonic acid and the gaseous oxide of carbon are very abundant.

This bed of coal is separated from a superior one by a bed of slate-clay of about three feet in thickness, which from its unsoundness is always worked at the same time as the upper and lower beds of coal; although the upper coal be but six or eight inches thick and of a very inferior 0032 24 quality; but in this manner a safer roof is obtained for the excavation.

The limestone is considerably affected by the pyrites, and being in some places, as we were informed, magnesian, it gives rise to sulphate of magnesia, which might also probably be worked to advantage. The pyritous beds of limestone are only such as come into contact with the coal, the superior strata are said to be quite free from it.

The only circumstance worth mentioning concerning the coal mines is, that they have frequently been on fire, and that there are many indications of conflagrations at a more remote period, probably caused by the spreading of the fires lighted at the surface by the Indians to facilitate their hunting. From these conflagrations the slate is in many places observed to be quite altered in its appearance, so as to resemble porcelain jasper in its characters.

No iron ore has been found in this neighbourhood, and we looked in vain, for indications of the argillaceous carbonate of iron, so usually to be met with in coal fields. We were informed that at some distance from the town, large quantities of iron ore had been discovered, but which from the characters ascribed to it we were induced to believe were not the argillaceous carbonate, but the oxide and hydrate of iron.

Having thus presented in one connected view, the various geological observations which were made on this part of the route, we return to notice the other interesting circumstances which attracted the attention of our party.

The route which we travelled is far more interesting to the general observer than that to Pittsburg, the country along the Potomac offers many very fine views, among which none is more remarkable than that from Sideling-hill. The ranges of mountains as they then present themselves, strike 0033 25 the traveller in the most favourable manner. The freshness of the vegetation is peculiarly grateful to the eye in the commencement of May, and contrasts beautifully with the deep blue of the distant mountains. At times the road winds along the valley; and again, it crosses the ridges, offering the greatest variety of scenery and affording to the artist many views worthy of his pencil; for while the bottoms abound in rich and smiling prospects, the mountainous parts arrest the attention, by their bold and gigantic features, and by the antique forests which cover them.

The season in which we commenced our journey, was not very favourable to the proper display of vegetation. The frost had not yet subsided in the mountainous districts, and the very heavy rains which had fallen in great abundance this spring, had retarded all the products of the earth to an unusual degree but the fine blossoms of the dogwood tree, ( Cornus florida ,) which every where met the eye, amply compensated for a want of other flowers.

Art has done little to add to the charms of the natural scenery, except in the construction of a road. The question of the propriety of opening, at the national expense a communication between the Ohio and Potomac, had been so much the subject of discussion, as to make us desirous of observing the mode in which it had been executed, and the too favourable idea, which we are, perhaps, always led to form, of what carries with it a national character, together with an account of the immense expenditure incurred in the making of this road, had prepared us for a magnificent work. We were therefore somewhat disappointed at the state in which we found it, as it is very inferior in execution to the Maryland road, which connects with it. There is in the whole of the national road but little to justify the high eulogiums which have been passed upon it. The immense 4 0034 26 expense, amounting to nearly two millions of dollars, ($1,995,000,) which has attended its construction, can be accounted counted for but by a reference to the difficulty of making a road across high and steep ridges, which perhaps not been sufficiently explored, to ascertain the lowest levels and the most accessible points; and, as we think, to the injudicious manner in which the original contracts were given out. We were credibly informed, that in most cases the original undertakers did nothing themselves, but portion out their contracts to a second set of contractors, and in some cases it happened that the third or fourth set alone performed the work, the other contractors sweeping away immense sums without any labour. * Had the route been properly divided into small lots, and these only given to such as were really qualified to execute the work, no considerable saving would have been obtained. The letting it out into large sections had the disadvantage of making it an object of speculation, and of alarming many who would otherwise have offered themselves as contractors.

* One of these is said to have accumulated in this manner a fortune of one hundred and twenty thousand dollars.

Another cause of the great expense which was the location of its western end in the valley of Wheeling creek, instead of carrying it over the high land. Some difference of opinion exists in the country as to the propriety of this selection. We were informed by many, that this location had been made, rather with a view to benefit private interests, than with a careful regard for the public good. Certain it is, that the number of bridges which were required in the route through the valley, added very considerably to the expense of the road. There are no less than seventeen bridges over the main creek, within thirteen miles of this valley road. It is but justice to observe 0035 27 that the bridges are, for the most part, substantial, well built, and even elegant in their construction. * A circumstance which enhanced much the expense of the valley road, was the necessity of propping it in many places by a stone wall or parapet, amounting in the aggregate to at least one-fourth or one-third of the distance. The road has, however, along this route, the advantage of being carried almost on a dead level, and in the other parts, where it crosses the mountains, it must be acknowledged that the ascents are better regulated than on any other road we have ever travelled. But a great defect which prevails throughout the whole route and which we had not expected to meet with, is that of using stones of too large a diameter on the road. After all the improvements which have been, of late years, made in this important branch of engineering, and after the very just celebrity which the M'Adams' roads have obtained in

* At the extremity of one of these bridges, a monument has been erected by a Mr. Shepherd, one of the principal contractors of this road. From an inscription on the monument, we learn that it was erected by “Moses and Lydia Shepherd, in honour of Mr. Speaker Clay, as a testimony of their gratitude to him, and of their high veneration for his public and private character.” Mr. Clay is known to have advocated this undertaking, on the floor of congress, with much talent and zeal. There are, we believe, as yet, but few instances of monuments erected in our country by private individuals, to commemorate the public services of our statesmen, and we must regret that the taste which designed, and the hands which executed this monument, were not equal to the liberality which provided for it. We have seldom seen a more clumsy attempt at allegory, or a more unfortunate introduction of emblematical figures: The inscriptions are also equally deficient in taste, in grammatical Construction, and in orthography. In order to improve its appearance, the stone in itself a beautiful building material, has been covered with a wash or paint, which, having sealed off from some parts and remained upon others, contributes to give it a motley and uncouth appearance.

0036 28 England, we had hoped that the suggestions of this able engineer on this subject, would have been more closely adhered to. Whatever may have been the defects or the mistakes which attended the location or execution, no doubt can exist as to the importance of the word itself, or as to the soundness of the policy which led to it. By the opening of it, the nation has gained a great deal; it has ascertained the practicability and the expediency of entering largely upon a system of internal improvements, the necessary consequence of which must be, to unite by closer bonds, the distant parts of our vast country; and of all improvements, none can be more important, than such as tend to connect the waters of the Gulf of Mexico with those of the Atlantic. Immediately allied to this subject, is the possibility of making a water communication between the Ohio and Potomac. At a time when, by a broad and liberal policy, the executive of the United States has been authorized to apply to the consideration of this important object, the united talents of the civil and military engineers of our country, and when a full and able report upon the practicability of this connexion may be expected from those most competent to decide upon it, we shall be excused from embodying here, the imperfect information which a transient visit through the country has allowed us to collect.

We found some interest in that part of the route which lies near Smithfield, as being the scene of some of General Washington's earliest military operations. The ruins of Fort Necessity, constructed at that distressing season, when the French troops with their savage allies extended along the banks of the Ohio, and oppressed our frontier settlement, are still to be seen in what are called the Big Meadows, about fifty miles west of Cumberland. This fort was erected in the year 1754, and after having been defended 0037 29 with great valour, was surrendered in the campaign which preceded Braddock's defeat, (Marshall's Life of Washington, Vol. ii, p. 9,) and the remains of it still to be traced, show that the ditch was inside of the embankment, which comports better with Indian warfare. * The fort stands about a quarter of a mile to the south-west of the road, and it is difficult to trace its outline, but from the observations we made, it would appear as if it had been triangular and scarcely one hundred feet in length. It is said that when Washington first entered it, his force amounted to six hundred men, but that having advanced on his march towards

* We are led to notice this fact more particularly, from the importance which Bishop Madison has attached to the circumstance of the ditch being inside of the ramparts in most, or perhaps in all the Indian remains, which are considered as fortifications. His opinion that these works were not oft military nature, appears to us very far from being proved. He quotes Livy and Polybius to show us, that in Roman works, “the parapet or breastwork was formed of the earth dug out from the fosse and thrown up on the side of the camp ”—and he further asks, “whether the military art does not require that the ditch should be exterior .” We do not consider this to be the question at issue. We have derived our notions of fortifications from the Romans, and we have continued to this day, probably with propriety, to place the ditch outside of the rampart; but this is no reason why works constructed by the Indians for military purposes, may not have had it otherwise. If we form our opinion of their notions of the military art, from the traces still visible among the Indians, who, if they be not their lineal descendants, have at lest succeeded to them in the inhabitance of that country, (and it is more consistent to look to them than to the Romans in this case,) we will find that their usual practice is, when apprehensive of an attack from an enemy, to make a small excavation, by digging up a little earth, which they uniformly throw out in the direction from which they apprehend an attack, and then to descend into this hollow where they find themselves sheltered from the missile weapons of their enemies. (Vide a letter on the supposed fortifications of the western country, from Bishop Madison of Virginia to Dr. Barton, Amer. Phil. Trans. Vol. vi. i, p. 132.)

0038 30 Fort Duquesne he was abandoned by a considerable proportion of his men, and this circumstance, together with the information, which he received, that the French were advancing against him with reinforcements, obliged him to abandon for the time his contemplated march, and to return to Fort Necessity, which he was engaged in repairing when the enemy made his appearance. The country in the vicinity was probably at that time destitute of timber, the growth upon it not being very large. A fine brook which flows near it, has retained the name of the unfortunate general who, in the ensuing campaign paid for his rashness by the loss of his life. Indeed, it is said, that the remains of General Braddock were interred within two miles of this fort, near the old road called Braddock's road, and at the spot where he died during the retreat which closed this disastrous campaign.

In this vicinity there is a blowing spring, which is situated in an excavation on the side of a hill. The stream of air which issues from a crack or crevice in the rock, is very considerable, and sufficiently powerful to extinguish a candle. By placing our ears near to the crevice we heard, very distinctly, the sound of water running under ground, probably upon a rocky and unequal bed; it runs out at a short distance lower down. This stream of air is doubtless produced by the same cause which is made to operate in the construction of the water blasts, used in metallurgy. We had no means of collecting and examining the gas which escapes, but we had no reason to believe it other than atmospheric air.

This section of our route does not offer to the zoologist much subject of observation. The wild animals which formerly roved over this part of our country have been driven further west, or completely cut off by the advance 0039 31 of civilization, and the domestic animals which now occupy their place, have nothing to characterize them. We cannot, however, omit noticing the extraordinary size and strength of the Pennsylvania waggon horse, which yields in these particulars to but few breeds. There are several appellations by which the different breeds of this useful animal are distinguished in Pennsylvania, such as the Conestoga, the Chester line, &c. but these are principally of a local import. The usual height of farm and waggon horses is about sixteen hands or five feet four inches, measured according to the usual custom. We were credibly informed that horses seventeen, seventeen and a half, and even eighteen hands high, are by no means rare. A few have been known to exceed that size, and we have been told that one, the largest ever known in the country, had attained the gigantic size of nineteen hands or six feet four inches. As a proof of the great strength which they sometimes attain, it is said that an experiment was once tried in the city of Lancaster, which resulted in a single horse's dragging around the court-house on the bare pavements, without the intervention of wheels or rollers, two tons of bar iron, which had been bundled together for this experiment.

The town of Wheeling appears to be in a very flourishing condition, and the increase in its population has been very great, since the completion of the national road. Business has taken a new direction; instead of centering, as it formerly did in Pittsburg, it now goes principally to Wheeling, which has the advantage of a much more permanent navigation all the year round. The population amounts at present to upwards of two thousand inhabitants. The situation of the town is pleasant, the river here is about five hundred yards wide, and there is opposite to the town a large and beautiful island nearly three-quarters of a mile 0040 32 wide. The town is divided into the old and the new, the former is built upon a narrow bank, which extends between the river and the ridge of hills on the eastern shore; the new town is built a little below the old, on the, river, and has a wider field to expand upon, owing to the junction of the lateral valley of Wheeling creek with that of the river. We regretted to find brick resorted to as a building material, not only in the construction of private houses, but even of churches and other public edifices, while a beautiful sandstone admirably adapted to the purposes of architecture, and which might be obtained at a very low price, remains unwrought.

The weather was so unfavourable during the three days which we remained here, as to preclude the possibility of ascertaining by astronomical observations the latitude and longitude of this town.

In our walks along the banks of the river, which are covered with a vast deposit of alluvium, and which present in this vicinity at least, no section of rocks, we were struck with the immense number of pebbles partaking of the nature of primitive rocks, which are strewed along the surface of the ground. They are not, it is true, of a large size, and their smooth and rounded surfaces attest that they have travelled far from their native sites. In examining our imperfect geological maps to endeavour to assign to them an origin, we feel at a loss to decide whence they may have been brought. We find no primitive formations nearer than those on the north side of our great lakes, which, from the aspect of the country, may be supposed to have given rise by their destruction to these extensive alluvia of primitive débris . Among these pebbles, chiefly of granite, gneiss, sienite, &c. we observed a rock formed of feldspar, quartz, and handsome crystals of translucent garnets, 0041 33 which appear to be very abundantly disseminated throughout the rock. *

* On the banks of the river there were but few shells, and these were referrible principally to the Unio praelongus, (Barnes,) and to the Unio crassus, and Unio purpureus of Say. Among the land univalves, Mr. Say observed the following shells, which had been previously described by him; viz. the Helix albolabris, Helix thyroidea, Helix alternata, Helix palliata, Helix profunda, Helix tridentata, Helix solitaria, Helix inornata. (Vide Nicholson's Cyclopœdia, Amer. Ed. and Journal of the Acad. Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, Vols. 1 and 2.)

There is in Wheeling a glasshouse, which we visited the glass made there is very good; the sand which they use is brought down from the banks of the Alleghany, and appears to consist of silex nearly pure; the alkali added is principally unwashed ashes. We were somewhat surprised at hearing, that the clay used in the manufacture of their crucibles was brought from Germany; indeed we consider this very improbable, as a clay very well adapted to this purpose is found in many parts of the country. The atmosphere in the glasshouse was extremely foul, owing to the sulphurous vapour disengaged from the coal.

The hills in the neighbourhood of the town are covered with masses of clay, sand, &c. which, as soon as they become penetrated with moisture, slide along the upper surface of the rocks, even where their inclination is but small. This feature is observable only on the northern slopes, the southern are much more abrupt. We were at first induced to attribute it to the effect of the winter frosts, but Colonel M'Ree, who had examined its appearance with care, attributes it principally to the action of moisture. 5*

CHAPTER II.

Zanesville. Salt and Iron Works. Columbus. Piqua. Indian Antiquities. Ohio Canals. Fort Wayne .

HAVING spent three days in Wheeling, and changed our mode of conveyance, in order to accommodate ourselves to the state of the roads, rendered almost impassable for carriages by the unusual quantity of rain which had fallen this spring, we crossed the Ohio in a team-boat, propelled by two horses. The river is there divided into two branches by the aforementioned island, which is about three quarters of a mile wide; over the first branch of the river a team-boat plies constantly, and corresponds with a common ferry boat on the other branch. The Ohio road is carried along the valley of a rivulet called Indian Wheeling, and is rendered extremely unpleasant to travel, by the frequent crossings of that brook. It was however so bad at that season of the year, that many preferred travelling up the bed of the creek to following the road. It has been observed by all travellers, that the Ohio runs in a valley, the average breadth of which does not exceed a mile and a half, the sides being lined by ranges of hills, which are generally termed the River Mountains; these vary considerably in height, generally ranging between three hundred and five hundred feet. After these are ascended, the country is rough, but the hills comparatively are small. These are, however, very steep, probably 0043 35 owing to the nature of the stratification, which is horizontal throughout the country; for it is a fact, which general observation confirms, that those hills, which are composed of rocks horizontally stratified, are generally steepest in their ascents, and present a tabular form at their summit. The coal formation of Wheeling is very extensive; the exact limits of this coal basin have not yet been traced with accuracy, but as far as we are able to judge from the information obtained upon a country as yet but thinly settled, and in which natural science has been little attended to, it would appear that it probably reaches as far to the north-east as Lawrenceville, in Tioga County, Pennsylvania, and perhaps may be considered as connected with that lately discovered in Tioga County, (New York,) near the head of Seneca Lake. The coal found at that place is, as we were informed, abundant, of an excellent quality, and well characterised as bituminous. The eastern limit may be taken to be formed by the main ridge of the Alleghany mountains. Upon its western and southern limits we are not prepared to decide, but it is probable that its breadth bears but a small proportion to its length.

At Zanesville we had an opportunity to observe the geological features of the country to advantage. The bed of the Muskingum is deeply incased, and the stratification is exposed for a considerable distance. It there presents the same features as in the vicinity of Wheeling, but the order of stratification and the character of the rocks are somewhat different.

A very fine break displays the following section: commencing at the lowest rocks, there is a sandstone of a tolerably coarse grain, filled with remains of vegetable substances converted into charcoal, in some cases partaking of 0044 36 a bituminous character, so that a gradual and invisible, hut certain, transition from the charcoal to coal manifestly takes place. These remains are, however, as far as we saw them, so much impaired as to make it impossible to assign to them any particular place in fossil botany, though of their vegetable origin no doubt can exist. In remarking upon their position, we ascertained, that they generally lay in the direction of the stratification, very seldom intersecting it. Besides fragments of charcoal and coal, we found impressions of plants, some of which were tolerably well characterised. In one instance a phyllolithos , (Martin,) was collected in a very good state of preservation.

The sandstone in a few cases assumes a somewhat micaceous appearance, consequently a more slaty structure, and then resembles that hereafter to be noticed. The rock immediately superincumbent is presumed to be a bed of clay-slate; though the junction being concealed and the relative positions of the rock being judged of only by the general level of the country, it was not in our power to decide in a positive manner whether or not there were any other strata interposed between the two.

This slate-clay is very brittle, and easily divisible; on exposure to the atmosphere it readily crumbles, and lays open to view concentric globules of argillaceous carbonate of iron, in every respect similar to those observed in other coal formations.

The iron ore is found in rounded or oval masses, somewhat flattened in the direction of the stratification; it appears to be quite abundant, and, we doubt not, if made the object of an exploration, would be found sufficiently so to justify the erection of iron works on a large scale.

Resting upon the slate-clay, we observed a bed several feet in thickness, composed of a dark gray limestone 0045 37 very compact in texture, but presenting at the same time a slaty structure, and divisible in layers parallel to the stratification. This limestone is replete with organic remains, chiefly belonging to the Encrinite, Terebratula, Productus, &c. among which we also found a shell belonging to the genus Trochus or Turbo. These shells are very abundant in the rock; they are found, as far as we could judge, irregularly disseminated, and adhering so closely that it is impossible to separate them, or to divide the mass into specimens which shall exhibit their characters uninjured; but being for the most part formed of calcspar, they resist decomposition better than the compact limestone in which they are imbedded, and from this circumstance the best specimens are found protruding from the exposed surfaces of the rock.

This bed offered great interest to the two naturalists of the expedition, the one as zoologist, the other as geologist. Mr. Say thought he beheld in it the confirmation of an opinion which he had long entertained, that, of all fossils, the Encrinus is that which resists decomposition best. Without pretending to dispute the correctness of the observation, as a general one, Mr. Keating thought that the present instance did not confirm it, and that there were many spots where the bivalves, (Terebratula and Productus,) indicated a greater degree of hardness and solidity, by resisting the effects of the weather better than the Encrini. This we state as being perhaps the only time when the two naturalists differed in their observation of the same fact, when coming under the notice of both.

Upon this limestone lay a bed of coal, of about two feet in thickness, and apparently of a very good quality; some works of no great amount were undertaken here not long since, which are unattended to at present. We were told, 0046 38 however, that in other parts of the country this coal is worked to advantage. It is the usual fuel in the town, being worth from four to six cents per bushel.

It is covered by a bed of slaty rock, which in some eases assumes a decided appearance of slate-clay, and in other points runs into a micaceous sandstone, not unlike the micaceous parts of that described as the lowest stratum visible in this vicinity; like the former it is filled with vegetable impressions of a very undecided character.

Over this slaty rock another bed of limestone occurs, the characters of which, resembling in every respect those of the stratum under the coal, require no further description. The superior bed, as well as the inferior one, is rich in impressions of Encrinites, Terebratula, Productus, &c. which shells retain their pearly lustre, and even in some eases their animal matter.

The limestone is covered with a fine vegetable mould, and affords a rich soil, not inferior to any of the limestone bottoms of Pennsylvania. We had no means of ascertaining what rocks lay below the first bed of sandstone observed in this break, but from what we could discover in the bed of the canal then digging in the neighbourhood of the town, we believe it to rest upon a sandstone in every respect similar to that described in the first chapter as existing in the neighbourhood of Wheeling, and we have every reason to believe that the same alternation of strata which exists there, would be found in like manner here, and that if shafts were sunk, inferior strata of coal might be reached.

Zanesville is a pleasant and flourishing town, situated at the junction of the Licking creek and Muskingum, about ninety miles above the confluence of the Muskingum and Ohio. As a manufacturing town it possesses great advantages. 0047 39 A dam built across the two streams, a short distance above their junction, gives it a command of water power which is calculated to set in motion very extensive mills and manufactories. It was the observation of these natural advantages, that induced the late Mr. Zane * to fix upon it as a seat for a town; the rapid growth of the place has raised it to a rank among the most thriving towns in the state of Ohio. A number of manufactories have already been established there, which appear to be conducted with spirit and enterprize; among these a manufactory of cut nails belonging to Mr. Reeves deserves notice. The iron for the manufactory is prepared by him from the pigs by the process of puddling and rolling. Glasshouses, in which both green and white glass are made, exist there; it is said that the clay from which they make their crucibles, and which is found at a short distance from the town, is excellent. Within four miles of Zanesville, on “Licking creek,” there is a furnace at which an hydrated oxide of iron is worked. The difference in the price between east iron and pigs is so great as to enable them to convert the whole of their produce into hollow ware, which is readily disposed of at

* A few days before our arrival at Wheeling, Mr. Zane, the founder of Zanesville, died in that place. This man was extensively known as having been one of the first settlers in that state. He was one of those pioneers of civilization, of which the history of our western States presents us so many instances, men equally distinguished by a dauntless courage, an unwearied perseverance, and by the success with which they resisted the aggressions of the aborigines, who frequently attempted, but in vain, to oppose those, whom they, perhaps very justly, considered as trespassers upon the soil which they had inherited from their fathers. Mr. Zane's character was highly respectable, and among the many anecdotes still current in Ohio, many of which attest his courage, there are none but such as are reputable to him as a man of feeling.

0048 40 seventy dollars, while the pigs command only thirty dollars a ton. Bar iron, and that not of the best quality, is sold for one hundred and twenty-five dollars. The little iron, refined in this vicinity, is generally of an inferior character. The experiment of manufacturing the iron by rolling, as is done at Reeves' establishment, has not been attended with sufficient success to lead to a more general introduction of this process. We conversed with several intelligent iron masters on the subject, with a view to obtain accurate information on the advantages of this method over that of hammering; the result of which was, that the product obtained from rollers was not so uniformly good as that obtained by hammering, which, in the opinion of our informants, was due rather to the defect of the workmen than of the process. The management of rollers is probably not well understood by them. We have taken occasion to record this information, because it appears to us that every thing that can throw light upon the manufacture of iron, is interesting. We consider the question of the propriety of using rollers, as a highly important one, and as one not yet settled; we know that a strong prejudice exists in this country against the rolled iron; and that the results of experiments made in Pennsylvania, are rather unfavourable; but we likewise know, that the process is very extensively carried on in England, where it has met with a decided preference in many instances; and the economy which attends it, must make it very desirable that it should prove successful. Experience shows that all innovations in the arts meet with objections; and that the failure of those, who attempt to repeat them without proper care or knowledge, is not unfrequently attributed to the imperfections of the process, instead of being charged to the inexperience of the operators.

0049 41

It is a remarkable fact, that with the admitted superiority of the British over American castings, no attempts have been made to work the same ore and by means of the same fuel which have proved so successful when used abroad. It is a truth with which every person who feels an interest on this subject, is conversant, that the clay iron stone is the principal ore used in England; that it is smelted by means of coak; that the products are extremely advantageous; that results equally favourable, if not more so, have been obtained in Silesia from the same ores; that experiments Which have been made on the same subject in France, have been attended with the happiest results. We may therefore wonder, that so much of this valuable ore is allowed to remain unwrought in the midst of the very fuel which ought to be used to smelt it; and that a preference should be given to the hydrates and oxides of iron, worked with charcoal, very frequently with great disadvantage.

The furnace which we visited near Zanesville, was built in 1809, and was, as we were told, the first erected in the state of Ohio; its inside is lined with fire-bricks made of the clay which is used for crucibles in the glasshouse, and the proprietors informed us that it was their intention to make large bricks of the same materials for their hearths, as all the stones they had heretofore used had proved defective, and had obliged them to suspend their operations under a year's blast, at a time when the rest of the furnace was in a very sound state. This experiment, if successful, will be attended with great advantages to the country. The clay has been analysed in Mr. Keating's laboratory in the University of Pennsylvania, and found to contain about seventy-two per cent. of silex, with alumine, little or no lime, and no metallic oxide.

The iron ore used here is an hydrated oxide, which 6 0050 42 yields in castings about thirty-three per cent. Is smelts very readily of itself, requiring but a slight addition of about three percent. of limestone. Among the great improvements which have been made at this place, is the connexion, by means of a canal with locks, between the upper and lower level of the Muskingum. The company who erected the dam, were bound by their charter to keep a lock navigation in repair, and their improvements, which have removed all obstacles to the navigation, will doubtless prove very valuable, as they have afforded them avery extensive water-power. Salt was some time since obtained at Zanesville, and all along the Muskingum; but of late the works here have been abandoned, the springs being too weak. It appears that those below are very productive; it is calculated that one hundred gallons of water from these will generally yield about a bushel of salt weighing fifty pounds; hence the water must contain upwards of six per cent. of salt. The establishments, as they are generally made in this country, Contain twenty kettles of the capacity of ninety gallons each, costing together about seven hundred dollars; of these kettles or pans, fourteen are used for evaporating and six for crystallizing the salt. During the evaporation, a sediment is formed, which is supposed by some to consist of loam and lime; no experiments have as yet been made of it, but it would doubtless prove very valuable in agriculture. The depth to which they bore varies much, it is generally about two hundred feet. In some cases the auger holes, which are about three inches in diameter, have been sunk to seven hundred feet in depth. The expense of course varies according to the depth, but the work is generally undertaken at from one dollar and fifty cents to two dollars per foot. In one instance, where the boring extended to 0051 43 upwards of one hundred feet, it was performed for seventy-five cents per foot. The whole capital required to up to salt works in this neighbourhood, is estimated at four thousand five hundred dollars; and when the work is prudently conducted, the business is considered very good; though the price of salt is at present low.

It was in boring for coal, a few years since, that a deception was practised, which made considerable noise in the country, and produced much mischief in Zanesville and its vicinity. It appears well ascertained, at present, that the silver, said to have been found in one of the auger holes bored on the banks of the river, had been thrown in by some evil-minded persons. The pretended discovery induced many to speculate largely upon the mine, before the detection of the plot, whence they incurred great losses; this event occurred in the year 1819.

The banks of the river are strewed with vast numbers of pebbles, much rolled, and evidently carried from a great distance. They consist principally of quartz, in some cases hyaline, in others partaking of the nature of jasper, agate, semiopal, &c. fragments of granitic and amphibolic rocks are also to be met with here and there. Specimens of petrified Retipore and Favosites striata , Say, and of a new genus of the Polypiers lamelliferes of Lamarck, Chonemblema , Say, * were also observed on the shore. These petrifactions are siliceous and rolled, and bear the appearance of having been removed far from their original locality. Specimens of the Favosites striata are also common in this vicinity.

* Appendix, I. A.

We observed near the bank of the river a considerable accumulation of common flint, (quartz silex,) which consisted of irregularly shaped blocks of silex, apparently nodules, 0052 44 which had been imbedded in a rock, in the manner in which the same substance lies in the chalk of the neighbourhood of Paris; its colour is black. Upon inquiry we were informed, that these blocks are gathered from the fields, where they are found loose and scattered; they do not carry with them the appearance of much attrition. They are used in the glasshouses in the preparation of fine white glass.

Among the features which strike the traveller, as he contemplates the scenery of the Muskingum, none contributes more to give a character of originality to the landscape, than a rude bridge erected across the river, in which the architect has contrived to connect three forks or arms, one of which reaches to the cape formed by the junction of the Muskingum and Licking Creek , while the other two establish a connexion between the opposite banks of the Muskingum, below the junction of the two streams. This presents an uncouth mass, contrasting well with the magnificence of the scenery. The bridge appears destitute of solidity, and will probably be soon replaced by a more elegant and permanent one. It is thus that the rude works of the first settlers in the west are disappearing gradually, and making way for the more improved structures of civilized life.

Having remained half a day in Zanesville, we continued our journey towards Columbus, which we reached on the 19th. The route between these two places offered us but little interest. To the mineralogist it presents none at all, being level, flat, and covered with an alluvium. We were informed that coal had been observed in many places, but in no instance of a quality to warrant its extraction; and that no where had it been worked beyond five miles west of the Muskingum. 0ur road, which led us through 0053 45 the valley of Licking creek, was very even. The rocks were always concealed from view, except in one or two places, where abrupt cliffs rose at too great a distance from the road, to permit us to decide upon their nature; but their general aspect appeared to connect them with those observed. in the vicinity of Zanesville.

Our attention was, however, soon directed in another channel. The country about the Muskingum appears to have been at a former period the seat of a very extensive Aboriginal population. Every where do we observe in this valley, remains of works which attest, at the same time, the number, the genius, and the perseverance of those departed nations. Their works have survived the lapse of ages; but the spirit which prompted them has disappeared. We wander over the face of the country; wherever we go, we mark the monuments which they have erected; we would interrogate them as to the authors of these mighty works, but no voice replies to ours save that of the echo. The mind seeks in vain for some clew to assist it in unravelling the mystery. Was their industry stimulated by the desire of protecting themselves against the inroads of invaders, or were they themselves the trespassers? did they migrate to this spot, and if so, whence came they? who were they? where went they? and wherefore came they here? Their works have been torn open; they have been searched into, but all in vain. The mound is now levelled with the sod of the valley; the accumulated earth which was perhaps collected from a distance into one immense mass to erect a monument deemed indestructible, over the remains of some western Pharoah, is now scattered over the ground so that its concealed treasure may be brought to light. Every bone is accurately examined, every piece of metal or fragment of broken pottery is curiously studied, 0054 46 still no light has as yet been thrown upon the name, and date, of the once populous nation which formerly flourished on the banks of the numerous tributary streams of the Ohio.

Such were the reflexions suggested to us by our visit to the numerous mounds and Indian works which abound in this part of the country, the first of which we observed in the small village of Irville, situated eleven miles west of Zanesville. It has been opened, and as usual, it has yielded hones. This mound was about fifteen feet in diameter and four and a half in height; it appears to have had an elliptic basis. Our guide told us, that he was present at the opening of it, and that there were a number of human bones, and among; others, a tolerably entire skeleton which laid: with its head to the north-west; the arms were thrown back over the head. Besides the bones, there were numerous spear and arrow points, and of the latter, we picked up one on the spot. There was also a plate of copper of the length of the hand, and from five to six inches in width, it was rolled up at the sides, and had two holes near the centre; its weight, we were told, might have been about a quarter of a pound, but was probably heavier; for it must have been very thin, if with those dimensions, it weight so little. What could have been the use of it, except as an ornament, was not determined; indeed, the inhabitants, of that part of the country so much accustomed to dig up bones, and remains of the Aborigines, that they are very careless about observing or recording the objects found, and the circumstances under which they were discovered. We were told that pieces of copper, and even of brass , had been frequently collected. The copper may easily be accounted for, without a reference to a higher degree of civilization, or to an intercourse with nations more advanced 0055 47 in the arts. The existence of native copper strewed upon the surface of the ground in many places, will easily account for the circumstance of its being used by the natives as an ornament, in the same manner that the Copper Indians of the north have been known, from the earliest days of their discovery by the whites, to adorn their persons with it, but we cannot account for the discovery of ornaments of brass, unless we admit an intercourse with nations that had advanced in civilization. The existence therefore of fragments of this alloy in mounds, appears to us doubtful; for if true, the Indians who constructed them must have been much more refined than we can suppose they were; or they must have had intercourse with civilized nations. The erection of these mounds, which appear to be in a great measure contemporary, was certainly much anterior to the discovery of this continent in the fifteenth century; and therefore it is not from Europeans that these pieces of brass were obtained; if again, we repeat it, they have been found interred in these works.

Beside this mound, there are many others in the immediate vicinity of Irville, some of which have very great dimensions; we observed one, near the road, which had been but recently excavated at its summit; it was perhaps about thirty-five or forty feet high. These mounds were for the most part overgrown with bushes; we could discover no order or plan in their relative positions, and from the scattered and irregular manner in which they lie, it does not appear that they were intended to be connected with any work of defence; it is more probable, that they were erected as mausoleums over the remains of the dead, and that the difference in their size was intended to convey an idea of difference in the relative importance of those, whose bones they covered. We were informed that this valley and the neighbouring hills abound in excavations 0056 48 resembling wells; we met with none of these; they are said to be very numerous, and are generally attributed to the first French adventurers, who being constantly intent upon the search of the precious metals, commenced digging wherever they observed a favourable indication; not having seen any of these, we could not pretend to express an opinion upon their origin, but from the number in which they are represented to be, as well as from their dimensions, they appear to us far exceeding the abilities of those to whom they are attributed; and to have required a much more numerous and permanent population than these adventurers are known to have brought over with them; we would therefore prefer the opinion which ascribes them to the same nations that erected the mounds, and who may have sunk these wells, either for purposes of self-defence, according to the usual mode of Indian warfare, or as habitations, in the manner known to be practised by some Indian tribes; (vide Harmon's description of the Carriers , * ) or finally, for some other cause as yet undiscovered. Their great depth, which is said at this time in many eases to exceed twenty feet, may be considered as an objection to the opinion which we have advanced. The supposition of Mr. Atwater, that these wells, which he states to be at least a thousand in number, were opened for the mere purpose of extracting rock crystal and hornstone, appears to us too refined; what ever may have been the advances of these nations in civilization, we have no reason to believe that they had carried them so far as to be induced to undertake immense mining operations, for the mere purpose of obtaining these articles. (Archaeologia Americana, vol. i p. 130).

* Journal of a Voyage and Travels in the Interior of North America, by D. W. Harmon, Andover, 1820.

Newark is a pleasant little town, situated at the fork of 0057 49 Licking and Raccoon creeks, about twenty-five miles from Zanesville. Within a short distance of it are some very fine remains of Indian works, which we were deprived from seeing, having been misinformed as to their real position; but we had less cause to regret this, as an excellent description of them has been published by Mr. Caleb Atwater, whose zeal and activity in exploring those old Indian works, have acquired for him a distinguished rank among the antiquaries of America. From his account of them, it would appear that these works must have covered several miles of country, and that they were perhaps connected with other works, situated at a distance, by parallel walls extending over a space of thirty miles. Of the labour bestowed upon them, an idea can be formed from the circumstance, that among these works there “is a circular fort, containing about twenty-six acres, having a wall around it, formed by the ground which was thrown out of a deep ditch on the inner side of the wall; this wall is now from twenty-five to thirty feet in height (Archæol. Am. i. 127).

In the vicinity of Newark we observed an orchard, every tree of which was propped, having, as we were told, suffered much from a violent south-westerly gale on Easter Sunday of this year; the fact would not have appeared to us worthy of notice, but for the Observation that this gale of Wind, which was felt very extensively throughout the country, was observed to have a different direction in different places; at Philadelphia it is known to have been from the north-east. It maybe a question, whether these two gales were in any manner connected, and if so, why they happened to proceed from different directions.

At Newark the party fell in with Captain John Cleves Symes, a man whose eccentric views on the nature of the 7 0058 50 globe, have acquired for him, not only in America, but also in England, a temporary reputation. The partial insanity of this man is of a singular nature. It has caused him to pervert, to the support of an evidently absurd doctrine, all the facts, which, by close study, he has been enabled to collect from a vast number of authorities. He appears conversant with every work of travels from Hearne's to Humboldt's, and there is not a fact to be found in these which he does not manage with considerable ingenuity, to bring to the support of his favourite doctrine. Upon other subjects he talks sensibly, and as a well-informed man. In listening to his expositions of his views of the concavity of our globe, we felt that interest which is inevitably awakened by the aberrations of an unregulated mind, possessed probably of a capacity too great for the narrow sphere in which it was doomed to live; and which has consumed itself with the fire, which if properly applied, would doubless have illumined some obscure point in the science which it so strongly affects. In another point of view, Captain Symes has a claim to our best sympathies for the gallantry with which he served his country during the war.

From Newark to Columbus the road passes through a moist and heavily-wooded country, well calculated for the growth of the beach tree, which was found here superior in size to any previously observed. This part of the route lying remote from any navigable streams, is almost destitute of population; and it was only when we came to the immediate vicinity of Columbus, that we again found ourselves in the midst of civilization.

The spot upon which the metropolis of Ohio now stands, presents a remarkable instance of those rapid changes which are so often to be met with in our western states. In 1812 a single log cabin only could be observed, where now a population 0059 51 of fifteen hundred inhabitants is seen enjoying all the comforts, and carrying on all the business of an old settlement. The situation of Columbus is, however, far from presenting advantages that can compete with those of many other western settlements. Much difficulty and division appears to have prevailed in Ohio previously to the location of the seat of government; and this spot was probably selected by a sort of compromise, rather with a view to its central situation than from any great local advantage. It stands on the left bank of the Scioto, at about half a mile from Franklinton, whose site on the right bank was thought too low and unhealthy.

The party were here joined by Mr. Colhoun, who had travelled from Washington city by the national road to Wheeling, and thence proceeded to Columbus, where he waited for the arrival of the Expedition. Some further arrangements required to accommodate ourselves to the country through which we had to travel, occasioned in this town a delay of one day, during which we experienced a remarkably heavy thunderstorm, which was accompanied by a wind apparently like a hurricane, its direction shifting at every moment; this produced much damage in the town, and among other things carried off both the gable ends of a house, the wind forcing a way for itself under the roof.

The banks of the Scioto are covered with pebbles, apparently from primitive formations; no rocks were visible in place, but the limestone used in the town, and which is filled with organic remains, is said to be found in the vicinity; it appears to be similar to that observed at Zanesville.

The wealth of Ohio has been so often the subject of discussion, that we felt an interest in ascertaining how far the reports circulated were correct. We found that, in fact, 0060 52 the produce yielded by agriculture so far exceeds all demands for it, that it has become a sort of dead stock in the hands of its owners. The price of grain has fallen so low, that the only mode of disposing of it consists in distilling it into whiskey, of which the price is twelve and a half cents per gallon, and when retailed in small quantities it sells at the rate of twenty-five cents per gallon. Such prices must of course be a check upon all industry, and at the same time productive of much mischief by offering a temptation to intoxication, which too many find it impossible to resist.

The weather had already set in very warm, the thermometer standing usually at noon at upwards of eighty degrees. Observations for latitude and longitude were commenced here, but were interrupted by the storm.

Wednesday, May 21st, the expedition left Columbus on its way to Piqua, situated on the Miami, about seventy miles west of Columbus, and likewise in the state The intermediate country is but thinly settled; the black, and not very deep, seldom more than it is underlaid with sand and pebbles, which are evidently the detritus of granitic rocks, similar to the large boulders observed every where throughout the country. No rocks to be met with in place. Although the country is very high, being probably from the best measurements which have been make, at least three hundred and fifty feet above the surface of Lake Erie, and consequently upwards of nine hundred feet above the surface of the ocean, it is very wet, being swampy, with occasional open woods and soft marshy prairies, very unlike those that are described by travellers as existing to the westward, and which we afterwards met with on the St. Peter's, &c. The whole of this part of our route led us irresistibly to the conclusion, that 0061 53 we were travelling upon the bottom of some lake, whose waters had, at a comparatively modern period, broken their bounds and found their way to the ocean. It is true, that in the present state of our geographical and geological knowledge of the valley drained by the Mississippi, it is impossible to assign any probable limits to this vast internal ocean; we know too little of the true direction of the different chains of mountains; which extend throughout this section of our country, or of their respective heights, to allow us to trace the limits of that powerful dam which formerly kept the whole of our western country under water; nor can we attempt to show in what places and from what causes the dam was forced, but the mere inspection of the high plains, which form the centre of the state of 0hio, must satisfy us that they doubtless owe the characters which they now present, to the recent sojourn of water. The country is covered with a very heavy growth of wood; many of the trees are upwards of five feet in diameter. These forests consist chiefly of oak, ash, elm, hickory, sugar-maple, black-walnut, beach, tulip, wild-cherry, &c. The cotton-wood tree, and the garden-coral honeysuckle were first observed here in great abundance; the tulip or Liriodendron , is the tree which attains the largest size. The soil, though good, is not of the first quality, and it is generally observed that the dark black soil, which predominates, is inferior in quality to a chocolate-coloured one which is occasionally met with. The average produce of the best crops of Indian corn amounts to about fifty bushels per acre; a good crop of wheat yields about thirty bushels. The increase of population in this district is far from being as rapid as it promised to be; the want of a market, the unhealthiness of all the marshy 0062 54 lands, * and the constant impulse to an emigration further to the west, have prevented many settlements being made, remote from the streams. Wild and unimproved land may be had, in most places, at two dollars per acre, and there is still some public land, belonging to the United States, which may be purchased at one dollar and a quarter per acre. The surface of the country presents some slight undulations. The only stream of any consequence which we met between the Scioto and the Miami, was Mad river, a tributary of the latter. The name which it bears was given to it on account of the wildness of its scenery, and of the agitation of its waters, resulting from the roughness of its bed. This is one of the most romantic Streams which the western country presents. Instead of the wide, and frequently bare bed, in which the other Streams run with a glory and lazy pace, Mad river descends in marks parts Of its course through a narrow and contracted channel, with the rapidity of a torrent. Notwithstanding the uncultivated and uninhabited state of the country, we saw but little game; this consisted of a few deer and wild turkeys, which however kept so far from our course as to prevent our firing at any.

* Besides the ague and intermittent fevers, we were informed that very fatal disease had prevailed during the last summer; it is well known to the west under the name of the sick stomach, or sickness, and is supposed to be produced by drinking milk, which has become unwholesome from some cause or other; many persons died of it last year.

The town of Urban is small, but neatly laid We met here with a family of emigrants lately removed from New Jersey, for the purpose of raising the Palma Christi, and manufacturing from it Castor oil, which they propose sending to the eastern cities, by the way of New Orleans; 0063 55 they have already planted twelve acres of it, and from the experiments which have been made, anticipate much success in this culture.

The expedition stopped for a day at Piqua, a small incorporated town, situated on the west bank of the Miami river, and on a spot which appears to have been the site of a numerous Indian population. The river is navigable for keel boats, a few miles above the town, during half the year. The town is built in a semicircular bend of the river, so that its streets, which are rectilinear, and parallel to the chord of the are, are terminated at both ends by the water. The spot is one of the most advantageous in the country for a large population; the situation is very fine for defence against aggressors; and we find that with their accustomed discrimination, the Indians had made this one of their principal seats. The remains of their works are very interesting, and being, we believe, as yet undescribed, we surveyed them with such means as were at our disposal. They consist for the most part of circular parapets, the elevation of which varies at present from three to five or six feet; but which bear evident marks of having been at one time much higher; many of them are found in the neighbourhood Of the town, and several of them in the town itself. The plough passes every year over some parts of these works, and will probably continue to unite its levelling influence with that of time, to obliterate the last remains of a people, who, judging from the monuments which it has left behind, must have been far more advanced in civilization than the Indians who were found there a century or two ago; and of whom a few may still be seen occasionally roving about the spot, where their fathers met in council.

We observed one elliptic and five circular works, two of 0064 56 which are on the east bank of the river, the others are on the west. The ground appears, in all cases, to have been taken from the inside, which forms a ditch in the interior; its depth cannot of course be ascertained at present, as it is in great measure filled up, but it must have been considerable. The area, within the ditch, probably retained the level surrounding country. The parapet may have been from three to four feet wide, but from slow decay it appears much wider. The first Which we visited, (A.) * is situated at about a quarter of a mile to the south-west of the town, and half a mile westward of the river; it appears to have been the most important of all, and forms, as it were, the centre round which the others were disposed. Its form is circular; its diameter is about one hundred and fifty feet: it has a gateway from eight to ten feet wide, which faces the river. Immediately connected, and in close contact with it, to the south-south-east, there is a small circular work, ( a .) the parapet of which is considerably higher; its diameter is about forty-three feet; it has no gateway or opening whatsoever. It has generally been considered as intended for a look-out post; but this opinion appears incorrect, from the circumstance that it is not raised high enough for this purpose; that its size is much greater than what would be required for a mere post of observation; and finally, that its construction essentially differs from that which is recorded by Mr. Atwater and other observers, as belonging to such posts of observation. There is nothing to support this opinion but its situation, which is in the most elevated part of the plain. We however think it more probable, that it was considered as a strong hold which should be resorted to in the last extremity.

* See the annexed plan.

0065 0066 0067 57

This opinion accounts for all the characters which we observe about it. Its situation near the main fort at the centre of the works; its smaller dimensions, which, while they would admit a considerable force, would permit it to be defended more easily than the extensive works with which it is connected: the height and thickness of its parapet confirm this belief. The circumstance of there being no gateway, is art additional proof for us, that it was intended to be used like the citadel of a modern fortress, as the last spot in which the remnants of a defeated army might be concentrated in order to make a decisive stand against their aggressors.

Proceeding in a direction south sixty-five degrees east from the first work, at a distance of about seven hundred and sixty feet we find another fortification, (B.) which, like the former, is partly situated in a ploughed field, but which passes also over a bye-road. In this old work, the white man has built his barns, stables, &c. and appears anxious to hurry on the destruction of what would, if uninjured by, him, have resisted the assaults of time. The parapet of this fort is not quite so elevated as that of the former; its dimensions are larger, being about two hundred and twenty-five feet in diameter; it has a gateway fronting that in the first fort, and similar to it. If any covered way ever existed by which these two works were connected, it has disappeared, no trace of it being at present visible.

Taking again the first fort, (A.) as a centre, and proceeding from it in a course north eighty-five degrees east, we find another circular enclosure, (C.) distant seven hundred and fifty feet from the first, and about five hundred and forty feet in a northerly course from the second; its parapets are higher than those of the other two; its diameter 8 0068 58 is about one hundred and fifty feet; it is provided with a gateway fronting that of the first fort. Between the second and third forts, (B. and C.) and near the bank of the river, there are remains of a water-way, (W.) formerly connected as we suppose with the third fort; these remains consist of a ditch dug down to the edge of the river; the earth from the same having been thrown up principally on the south side or that which fronts down the river, the breadth between the two parapets is much wider, near the water, than at a distance from it; so that it may have been used either for the purpose of offering a safe passage down to the river, or as a sort of harbour, in which canoes might be drawn up; or perhaps, as is most probable, it was intended to serve both purposes. This water-way resembles in some respects, that found near Marietta, but its dimensions are smaller. The remains of this work are at present very inconsiderable, and are fast wasting away, as the road which runs along the bank of the river intersects it, and in the making of it, the parapet has been levelled and the ditch filled up; this is much to be regretted, as this work, if it could be seen in its perfect state, would perhaps discover the motive which led to the erection of these fortifications, the attacks against which they were intended to provide, and the means with which the resistance was to be effected. But the largest of the works on the western bank, still remains to be noticed. This is an elliptical construction, (D.) of great eccentricity; its transverse and conjugate diameters measuring eighty-three and two hundred and ninety-five feet; iris situated six hundred feet in a direction north forty degrees east from the first fort, its conjugate axis extends nearly east and west; we observed no gateways; this work is almost effaced, its parapet does not rise quite one foot above the ground.

0069 59

We crossed the river in a canoe, and landed at the foot of a very steep hill, about one hundred feet high. On the top of this hill, remains of a fort (E.) in a Very good-state of preservation are to be seen; it lies in a direction north sixty degrees east from the first fort which we visited, and is one hundred and twenty,three feet in diameter; it is placed on a very commanding position, on the brow of the hill which has unfortunately been partially washed away, and has carried down with it about one-third part of the works. There is at present but one gateway visible, which is on the east side, and is about six or eight feet wide. This part of the works is one of the most interesting, it having as yet received no injury from the hands of man. It is covered with trees of a very large size. Upon the top of the parapet we found the trunk of a tree, which had evidently grown long after the rampart had been constructed, and probably much after it had ceased to be the theatre of bloodshed and of assault. The interior part of the trunk was very much decayed; but we counted two hundred and fifty concentric layers in what appeared to be less than the outer half; whence we concluded that this tree was certainly upwards of five hundred years old at the time it was cut down. These works all bear the impress of a very remote antiquity; in some cases, trees of a very large size are seen growing upon the trunks of still larger trees; We have, as we conceive, no data to enable us to refer to them any definite date; but we are well warranted from all their Characters in assigning to them an antiquity of upwards of one thousand years.

At about fifty rods to the north-north-west of the last mentioned work, there is another, which is circular, and of a much larger size. It has two gateways, one fronting east, and the other west. We did not see this last, but we are 0070 60 indebted to some of the inhabitants of Piqua for a description of it.

About these forts there are, as might be expected, many Indian arrow-heads, and other remains to be found. Those which we saw present however nothing peculiar. We observed both the war and the peace arrow-head, or that which is used in hunting, and which is distinguished from the war arrow-head, by the absence of the acute shoulder, with which the war arrow is always provided, in order to cause it to remain in the wound, from which it cannot be extricated without much danger and pain to the patient: whereas, that used in hunting is such that it can be withdrawn without difficulty. For the same reason, while the latter is attached to the arrow very firmly, the war head adheres to it but imperfectly, so that after it has entered into the body, if the arrow be withdrawn, the head remains buried in the flesh. Among other things found near these fortifications was a piece of broken pottery, which was considered as of Indian manufacture; but on examining it closely, we immediately recognised it to be a fragment of a small earthen crucible, and from its appearance we believe it to be of French manufacture, as it resembles more the French than the German crucible. Taking this into consideration, and bearing in mind that the first French settlers in this country were constantly looking out for ores of gold, silver, &c. we entertain no doubt that this, instead of being of Indian manufacture, is a fragment of a crucible, probably imported from France, and used in some docimastic experiment.

We had an opportunity the ensuing day, on our road to Fort St. Mary, to see the remains of an old Indian work, which Consists of stones apparently from the destruction of a stone wall which is supposed to have been erected by the same 0071 61 nation. It is situated about three miles west of Piqua, on a bluff elevated about thirty feet above the level of the valley of the river. The wall, which is considered by some as having been erected for purposes of defence, stood near the brink of the hill, facing to the south-east. It has been completely thrown down, but its limits may be very distinctly traced by the stones which lay on the ground, forming an ellipsis whose axes are respectively fifteen hundred and nine hundred feet. * This work is stated upon the authority of Col. Johnston, to enclose an area of seventeen acres. The longest axis extends in an east and west line; the distance of the nearest point of the ellipsis to the river was estimated to be about seven hundred yards. At its south-eastern part, it is supported by a circular earthen forty similar to those previously described, and measuring about thirty-six yards in diameter. The stones, of which the wall was built, are all rolled, mostly granitic, few of them are calcareous; they are in every respect similar to those we find scattered over the country, and especially on the banks of the river. At present they form a loose pavement, about six feet wide round the ellipsis. The figure of the ellipsis deviates in some cases from a strict regularity, probably to accommodate itself to the surface of the country as it then was, In sundry parts, and more especially towards the west side, are many gateways or interruptions in the walls; which are generally from six to eight feet wide. Back of these, and within the area of the ellipsis, we find a number

* This as well as the measures given for the preceding works; must be taken as approximate. When the distance was small, it was determined by means of a measuring tape; when long, by pacing the ground; the measure of the pace having been first determined by experiment. The courses or directions are correct, having been taken with a compass.

0072 62 of stones heaped up in the form of mounds, which are supposed posed to he the remains of small works, thrown up for the defence of the gateway, and so situated that one mound will protect two gateways. Although the general opinion seems to be favourable to the idea, that this stone wall was erected as a fortification, we by no means consider this as proved. All the stones which are found there, if arranged so as to form the highest possible wall, would probably not rise above four and a half to five feet; but in order to afford the wall any degree of solidity, it would be necessary to give it such a breadth as would probably reduce its dimensions to less than three feet. On the part of those who do not consider this as the remains of a military work, it may be argued that we have no proof of these stones having ever formed a wall; that they may have been gathered for the purpose of forming the elliptical pavement which they now present. That this may have been constructed for motives which we cannot at present conceive of, is no proof that such motives may not have existed; further, it may be said that, admitting these stones to be the remains of a wall, iris not probable that it was made for military purposes, as a work of this kind would certainly not have been erected for the protection of a small force, and as a large number of persons collected in it would have been quite unprotected against arrows and other missile weapons. That the situation, though a commanding one, appears quite untenable for want of water, which can only be procured by descending the hill towards the river, in which case the party venturing out would be exposed to be cut off by the enemy. A spring was, it is true, observed within the elliptic enclosure; but the small quantity of water which it affords at present, renders it improbable that it should have been at any time sufficient for the consumption 0073 63 of as large a force a as would have been required in the defence of so extensive a work. The number of gateways it may be said, likewise excludes the possibility of its being intended as a work of defence; for they are very numerous and sometimes within four or five feet of each other. The unevenness of the ground, part of the wall being along the sides of the hill and much lower than the rest, may be urged as another strong objection to its being considered as a military work. If it be not intended for purposes of war, what was the intention of those who erected it? Its extent, the labour which it required in order to accomplish it, its form and situation, in fine, all its characters would then concur in leading to the belief that it must have been a religious monument; probably forming an arena where their sacred festivals, their games, their ceremonies could be conveniently carried on. The number of the gates, the heaps of stones which lay near them, all tend to prove that no other origin can be safely ascribed to it. It was suggested that this may perhaps be the remains of a pound, similar to those made by the Indians to this day,' for the purpose of entrapping buffaloes and other wild game. But this opinion is likewise excluded by the little resistance which a wall of such small dimensions, formed by the union of uncemented stones but loosely piled together, would have presented to the powerful efforts of the wild animals which it would have been intended to enclose; Its situation on an uneven ground, likewise excludes this hypothesis from any claim to plausibility.

The stones used vary much in size, from that of a walnut to the largest which a man may carry; doubts may exist whether this wall was raised upon an earthen parapet; if there was one of this kind, it has certainly disappeared almost entirely, yet in a few places the elevation 0074 64 formed by the stones, appeared greater than might have been expected from the quantity of materials which were observed. It is, therefore, not impossible that, in some places at least, the wall may have been supported by an earthen parapet. The motive for which these stones were collected will probably ever remain a secret; and we must be contented with surmises, all of which are unsatisfactory' because all are founded upon hypothetical manners, which we ascribe to the authors of these works. When we observe a circular rampart with a fosse, a gateway and a traverse inside of the gateway, we discover a similarity to our modern fortifications, and we immediately consider that this may have been erected for the same purpose; without enquiring into the foundation which we have for assigning to them the same system of fortification which we have adopted. In examining into the character of man, whether civilized or savage, we are, it is true, struck with the powerful influence which two of the most opposite passions, a warlike and religious spirit will exercise over him; and to one or both of these we may attribute his most astonishing actions, whether good or bad. The experience of every nation proves, that almost all religious faiths have led to the undertaking of vast constructions. WithOut recurring to the Egyptian and Indian antiquities, we find in the splendid remains of Greece and Rome, the colossal and magnificent Gothic cathedrals of the middle ages, and even in the more recent edifices of modern times, that religion has at all periods been the principal motive which induced men to exert their genius and expend their labour in constructions. Judging, by the Same test, of the nations long since extinct, which at one time covered the banks of our western streams, we will not be surprised if the remains of their finest works bear the character 0075 65 of having been undertaken, partly at least, with religious views.

On the road from Piqua to this stone wall, we passed a very large mound, which had been partially cut down in order to make room for the road. This mound has, as we believe, never been opened. In this vicinity and near the bank of the river, is the residence of Colonel John Johnston the Indian agent, a man whom we should judge to be of estimable feelings as, unlike most of the settlers in this new country, he has respected the remains of these Indian works, and has not suffered the ploughshare to pass through them. Colonel Johnston observes, that he does not know that any Indian works have been found due north of Miami county, (Ohio,) though they occur to the south and south-west as far as the Floridas. (Western Gazetteer, p. 290.) About half a mile to the south of the town of Piqua, there is an old Indian cemetery, it is situated upon a level piece of ground, elevated about twenty feet above high water mark, and in a romantic spot intersected by a small run. The surface of this place is formed by limestone rocks, laying bare and deposited in horizontal strata. Upon these rocks it appears that the corpses were deposited, and that they were covered over with slabs of stone, some of which were tolerably large; over these a thin soil has been formed, in the lapse of ages, and this supports a scanty herbage. Upon reaching the spot, we found that most of these mounds had been broken open for the purpose of burning into lime the fragments of stone which composed them, and of avoiding thereby the trouble of working into the solid rock. We opened several, but in all eases we found the bones very much injured; indeed, all of them were more or less broken except one, which Was evidently a toe bone. They had become very much altered, and were yellow and 9 0076 66 cellular. We took specimens with us to examine them chemically, with a view to ascertain what changes they had undergone; but they were lost with part of our collections. The objects which seemed to resist decomposition most effectually, were teeth. Of these we found, however, but few, not more than half a dozen; two of them were milk teeth, the rest had belonged to adults; they were rather of a small size, and worn out almost to the root. The bones all lay scattered and without order; they were fragments of the: cranium, the arms, shoulders, &c. which almost crumbled under the pressure of the fingers. The only object that we noticed with them, were the two incisor teeth of a ground squirrel, which were probably of tortuitous deposition.

The rocks in the neighbourhood of Piqua are uniformly composed of a white limestone, of a compact texture, but containing many cavities filled by crystallized carbonate of lime. It is filled with organic impressions, among which Mr. Say determined the Flustra, (expanded and branched,) the Terebratula, the Caryophillæa, and probably several others. A rolled specimen, which is supposed not to belong to this formation, contained a tolerably good impression of Favosites striata , S.

We also found here a specimen of primitive limestone with mica; but it was evidently rolled, and bore no resemblance to the rocks which occur in place in this vicinity. At Piqua the rocks are all very well stratified, the strata being nearly horizontal. This limestone is found to yield by burning, a lime of a tolerably good quality. It is stated that salt springs have been discovered in various places near Piqua, but we met with none.

There is a very considerable rapid in the Miami at this place; which has induced a company to cut canal for the 0077 67 accommodation of the aseending navigation. This improvements is now completed, and affords them fine water power, with a fall of nine feet. This, together with the fertility of the adjoining country, which is represented as formed of a very rich prime soil, of a chocolate colour, will doubtless soon lead to the erection of extensive grist mills at this place; the capital of the company not being adequate to the undertaking, the mills which they have established are by no means suitable to the power of which they can dispose. The Miami is fordable here at almost all seasons of the year, but there is a very good bridge over the river. The name of the town is derived from that of one of the principal tribes of the Shawanese Indians, who formerly roved through this part of the country, spreading itself as far as the Pickawa plains, situated about seventy-five miles to the south-east. This tribe is now nearly extinct, the few remaining descendants of it have united themselves with the Miamis, and are settled in the vicinity of Fort Wayne

After spending a very interesting day in Piqua, in the examination of its antiquities, we left this place with a feeling of gratitude for the kind attentions shown to our party by the inhabitants of the town, and particularly by the of the Land-office, Major Oliver, late of the Army, with the country made him a very interesting companion in our investigating of the antiquities of the vicinity

The country through which we travelled lies near the head waters of Loramie's creek, one of the tributaries of the Miami. We entered this day upon what may be termed the table land, Lakes from those of the Gulf of Mexico, and continued on it or in its immediate vicinity, Until we reached Prairie du Chien on 0078 68 the Mississippi. As we shall have frequent opportunity of recurring to the singular feature, which this country presents in the interlockage, almost every where apparent, between the head streams of two mighty rivers, whose waters fall into the ocean at a distance of upwards of two thousand miles, we need not enter at present into many particulars. It will suffice to state, that after leaving the tributaries of the Miami, we came, in less than two hours' ride, to the rivers which send their waters to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The intermediate country is wet and marshy, there is no appearance of a ridge, properly speaking; it is an elevated flat plateau , the nature of which is marshy.

This remarkable feature in the topography of the state of Ohio, has not escaped the attention of its inhabitants. We find that the possibility of establishing a connexion between the rivers that empty into the lakes, and the tributaries of the Ohio, has long since been asserted by the statesmen of the west. The only point which remained unsettled was, what direction should be given to the proposed works, and which of the many routes suggested, was preferable?, On this point, it cannot be doubted that the prerequisite information had not been obtained, and consequently that no decisive answer could be given; in the absence of authentic calculations, prepossessions founded on local interest were, perhaps, allowed to exercise too great a sway. To avoid these evils, and with a view of doing justice to the whole state, the legislature of Ohio by a very liberal policy, appointed a board of commissioners to examine the whole country, make accurate surveys of the various routes which had been suggested, ascertain by gaging or otherwise, the quantity of water on each route; and finally locate lines of canals upon such routes as appeared to them practicable 0079 69 They were directed to submit the result of their operations to the legislature, who would then be enabled to decide upon the merits of the respective routes.

These duties were too extensive and too arduous to admit of their being executed in one season; and the commissioners have been arrested in many of their surveys by the unhealthiness of the country, through which they were obliged to carry on their operations. We have taken pains to acquire information on this interesting subject, and we are inclined to consider that which we have received as correct, because it was obtained from persons conversant with it, and particularly from M. T. Williams, Esq. of Cincinnati, one of the acting commissioners, with whom we had the pleasure of travelling for a few days; and who, in the many conversations which we had with him, has shown himself master of the subject. We have likewise drawn part of our information from the able report made on the 21st January, 1824, by the canal commissioners to the general assembly of Ohio, for copies of which we are indebted to Mr. Williams.

From this report it appears that the routes proposed may be reduced to four, viz.:—

The first route would be to connect the waters of the Grand river of Lake Erie with the Ohio, at the mouth of the Big Beaver creek. This route, being very near to the Pennsylvania line, and in some parts east of it, cannot be eligible by the state of Ohio, if any other practicable route may be found. From the surveys made by Judge Geddes, or under his direction, it would appear that this summit, which is known by the name of the Mahoning summit level, is elevated three hundred and forty-two feet above Lake Erie, and two hundred and fourteen feet above the 0080 70 Ohio at the. mouth of Big Beaver creek. * This canal would therefore require upwards of five hundred and fifty feet of lockage. The question whether or not a sufficiency of water can be obtained on this route is still undecided.

* We have here adopted the measurements given by the canal commissioners in their report, though we are afraid that a mistake may have escaped their notice; the height of this summit level was stated by a gentleman whom we met at Columbus to be three hundred and twenty-four feet, which appears mere correct, for by a comparison of the difference of level between Lake Eric and the mouth of the Muskingum, the fall of the Ohio from the town of Beaver in Pennsylvania to Marietta would be one hundred and fifty-two feet, if we adopt the calculations of the commissioners; whereas, upon the other data it would be hut thirty-six feet, which is much more probable.

The second route contemplates connecting the Muskingum with the lake, which may be done either by the Tuscarawas and the Cuyahoga creeks, or by the Killbuck and Black rivers; a third division of this route purposes ascending the Killbuck, continuing along the summit level in an easterly direction to the Cuyahoga, and descending that stream to the lake. These three plans may be considered as parts of one general route, the preference to either being a question, which it will only be important to decide, after the propriety of adopting the Muskingum route shall have been decided in the affirmative. The summit level between the Killbuck and Black river, is elevated three hundred and thirty-seven feet above Lake Erie and three hundred and sixty-one above the Ohio at Marietta. It would therefore require near seven hundred feet of lockage. The level between the Cuyahoga and Tuscarawas has been found to be four hundred and four feet above Lake Erie and four hundred and twenty-eight above Marietta. The locks would therefore exceed eight hundred and thirty 0081 71 feet; this section of the Muskingum route, though longer, and crossing a higher summit than that up the Killbuck, would probably be preferred, as being more easily supplied with water.

The third route for the canal is that which would connect Scioto and Sandusky rivers. These streams, passing nearly in a north and south Free through the centre of the state, seem at first sight to be the most eligible for the canal if it be practicable to execute it in this direction. Doubts had been entertained concerning the quantity of water which might be obtained on this summit, but as Judge Geddes and Mr. Forrer had ascertained that most of the head waters of the Great Miami river might be brought upon the summit level of this route, generally designated in Ohio as the Tyamochte level, hopes were entertained that it would prove practicable. This level is elevated about three hundred and fifty-four feet above the lake, and four hundred and fifty-five above the mouth of the Scioto, whence it will require about eight hundred and ten feet of lockage. Upon a further survey of the country, and gaging the streams, the commissioners have however come to the final conclusion, that the supply of water on this route would probably be insufficient to overcome the losses by leakage, evaporation, &c.; and that it would leave no supply of water for the expenditure in the passage of boats through the locks. In their calculations they have assumed as a basis the loss of water by leakage, evaporation, &c. on the New York canals, which has there proved much greater than had been anticipated, as it amounts to an average of one hundred cubic feet per minute, for every mile of canal route. This amount was reduced by proper allowances for the difference in the nature of the country through which it was contemplated that the canal would pass; but, even 0082 72 with these allowances, they have been led to believe, that “the upper levels on the Sandusky and Scioto route, could not he supplied with the necessary quantity of water in dry seasons, by either of the methods proposed and considered; and the board after deliberating on the subject, from the facts and views laid before them by the acting commissioners, came to the conclusion that a further expenditure of time or money in locating a canal line on the Sandusky or Scioto route would be inexpedient, unless some other method should be devised, or some other source of supply discovered.” It has therefore become, to say the least, “ extremely doubtful whether a canal on the Sandusky and Scioto route can ever be made.”

The fourth route which has been suggested, and which is termed the western route, has for object to unite the waters of the Great Miami and Maumee rivers, by means of Loramie creek and the Auglaize river. The summit level in this case will be elevated three hundred and eighty-nine feet above Lake Erie, and five hundred and forty above the Ohio near Cincinnati; occasioning therefore a lockage of about nine hundred and thirty feet. This route appears to be the best supplied with water; it would pass through a sections of country inferior to none in America, in the fertility of its soil, or the amount of surplus productions which it is capable of sending to market; it would become a source of immediate and extensive profit, by the quantity of water which it would bring to the termination of the canal at Cincinnati, affording power for extensive and valuable hydraulic works, which are there much needed. The commissioners appear to be of opinion that the bed of the river ought not to be pursued, but that a thorough-cut ought to be made. The summit level would be in the vicinity of Fort Loramie. This canal would probably be about two 0083 73 hundred and fifty miles long. The supply of water would be amply sufficient even for locks of the size of those on the New York canal. Allowing the expense to he the same as in New York, this canal would probably cost about three millions of dollars; but the experience which has been acquired in the construction of that work, warrants us in believing that a similar undertaking may hereafter be performed at a more economical rate. However this may be, no doubt can exist as to the benefits which Ohio would reap from this canal.

From all that has been stated, it appears that the last of these routes is that which offers at present the most decided advantages, but the plan which the commissioners have in contemplation, and which, if practicable, will we doubt not, at their suggestion, be undertaken by the state of Ohio, is one that would prove as beneficial to that state as it will be honourable to it. This plan would be to construct a canal which would unite with the lake as near the north-east corner of the state as nature will permit, and passing through the great vallies of the Muskingum, the Scioto, and the Miami, in a south-westwardly direction, enter the Ohio near the south-west corner of the state. The commissioners appear to be aware of the difficulties they will have to encounter; but the data they have already collected on this subject, are favourable to the execution of the scheme, and if they should be equally successful during the summer of 1824, in establishing the complete connexion, they will have the honour of having suggested a course, which, if it be not adopted at present, will be so at a future time; for, after the undisputed benefits which canals have afforded wherever they have been made, it is impossible to doubt that, with the great natural advantages which she possesses, Ohio will be among the first to enlist herself 10 0084 74 among the patrons of an extensive system of internal improvement.

After crossing Loramie's creek two or three times, we reached St. Mary's river, which unites at Fort Wayne with the St. Joseph to form the Maumee. The historical recollections which connect themselves with the section of country through which we travelled, compensate for the little interest which it offers to the naturalist. To him nothing can be more annoying than to pass over a marshy, swampy country, where no rocks appear in situ , and where but few boulders are met with; where the animals are few in number, and apparently afraid to risk themselves in spots in which their speed would avail them but little. It is true, that the pursuits of the botanist might have been carried on successfully, in a situation where an abundant growth of plants would probably have offered him objects worthy of his notice; and this would have compensated the rest of the party for the apparently uninteresting character of the country; for, in an expedition of the nature of ours, the success of each individual in his peculiar pursuit, becomes a source of gratification to all. Being, however, unaccompanied by a botanist, we found in this part of Ohio nothing to interest us but the recollection busy scenes of war which had at a former time been enacted in this district. As the principal field upon which all the military operations of Generals St. Clair, Wayne, and Harrison, were conducted, there is much cause to dwell with pleasure upon the spot. A vast difference exists, however, between the theatre of an Indian warfare and that of the military undertakings of civilized nations. The descriptions of the spots, upon which the latter occur, are so much more accurate that they never can be mistaken; while-of the former we seldom know the 0085 75 exact site. Even the history of the defensive works which were erected, soon loses part of its interest by the destruction of the works themselves. We read of the deeds done in the neighbourhood of Fort Loramie by the French, or of the Miami villages by St. Clair, but if we travel over the ground, we find but few traces of these deeds. At Fort St. Mary, which was one of General Harrison's principal depots in 1813 and 1814, we see but the remains of a half-ruined blockhouse, and of a very miserable hut surrounded by pickets, which are fast falling to decay. A few years more and the remains of these works will be sought for by the traveller as unsuccessfully as we now search for the spots upon which St. Clair fought, and Wayne conquered. A young growth of trees is rising, which, if not levelled by the axe of the forester, will soon conceal the last traces of the clearing, made by Wayne for the advance of his army, which was pointed out to us as Wayne's road. The party arrived in the afternoon of the 24th of May at Fort St. Mary, just in time to avoid a heavy rain. A solitary log-house marks the spot where a little village formerly thrived, under the protection of the French fort, erected at this place. It stands on St. Mary's river, at a distance of fifty-eight miles by land from Fort Wayne; the distance by water is probably about one hundred and thirty-eight miles. The river is navigable, during half the year, for large boats, carrying from one to two hundred barrels; during the rest of the year, in dry seasons, there is scarcely water enough in it to float, a canoe, and its course is very much impeded by driftwood. A little limestone of a very inferior quality has been found on the river bank, below the fort. From Piqua to St. Mary the soil is only of second quality, being in many places too wet and swampy for grain. The weather had 0086 76 become very hot; at noon, Fahrenheit's thermometer stood in the shade at eighty-eight degrees. Our party began to suffer much from the inconvenience of mosquitoes and other insects. The entertainment which we received along the road was observed to become more and more rough, and to denote our speedy approach to the last limits of civilization. The cotton-wood tree became much larger as we advanced. Mr. Say noticed the Papilio thoas and ajax in great number.

On leaving, on the 25th May, the miserable hut which had afforded us a shelter during the storm, our route led us along the banks of the St. Mary, which we followed down to its confluence with the St. Joseph, occasionally coming in sight of the river and keeping off from it, at times, according as its course was a straight or devious one; we travelled for twelve miles over the swampy country through which this river flows, after which we struck a beautiful dry prairie, known by the name of Shane's prairie, and at eighteen miles from Fort St. Mary we crossed the river at a settlement called Shanesville; both the prairie and settlement, (which consists of but one family,) owe their appellation to an interpreter, who is a half-breed Indian, his father was a Canadian, his mother an o[???]t-t[???]a-wa[???]. * He was employed as an interpreter and spy by General Harrison, during his western campaigns, and is considered as having acquitted himself of his duties faithfully; on the conclusion of the war he was rewarded by the grant of a section, (six hundred and forty acres,) of land, which he has divided into town lots; he resides

* Whenever an Indian word occurs for the first time, its orthography and. pronunciation will be indicated by using Walker's key. The sign ([???]) prefixed to a vowel indicates that it is short, while the sign ([???]) shows it to be long, the unaccented vowels have the usual quantity.

0087 77 within a short distance of Shanesville on part of his grant. The soil being considered of the best quality, and the situation on the river an advantageous one, he has already sold out some parts of it. No man is better known in this part of the country than Shane; his influence among the Indians is great, and he enjoys a high degree of popularity with the whites, founded upon the uniformly good character which he maintained during the war, and upon the unbounded confidence reposed in him by General Harrison. He was absent from home at the time we passed there, but we afterwards met with him at Fort Wayne.

The late heavy rains had so much swelled the St. Mary that it was impossible to ford it. We passed it in a canoe —our horses swam across. Fourteen miles of bad roads, leading however through a country remarkable for the excellence of its soil, and for its fine luxuriant growth of white and black oak, beach, hickory, shellbark, &c, brought us to a new, settlement, where, notwithstanding the badness of the accommodations, we were happy to find a hospitable reception. Near to this house we passed the state line, which divides the state of Ohio we met with no Indians. Their numbers appear to be diminishing very rapidly. We were informed that they do not exceed two thousand, consisting principally of Ottawas, Miamis, Senecas, Wyandots, &c. This neighbourhood abounds, as we were informed, in wolves, deer, and raccoons; bears are few, and the panther is seldom seen; we met with no wild animal whatever, on this part of our route. The distance from this to Fort Wayne is twenty-four miles, without a settlement; the country is so wet that we scarcely saw an acre of land upon which a settlement could be made. We travelled for a couple of miles with our horses wading through water, sometimes to the 0088 78 girth. Having found a small patch of tame grass, (which from its colour, is known here by the name of blue-grass,) we attempted to stop and pasture our horses, but this we found impossible on account of the immense swarms of mosquitoes, ( Culex ,) and horseflies, ( Tabanus ,) which tormented both horses and riders in a manner that excluded all possibility of rest.

At a distance of about nine miles from Fort Wayne, we observed a large ash which had been blown down, the tree had been divided in two, in part of its length; a small trough had been excavated in it, in which an Indian child had been deposited, the upper segment of the tree had been replaced to cover the corpse, and the whole secured by a neat little frame. This rude grave had been torn open, doubtless by some white man, to rob it of the trifles with which the tenderness of an Indian parent supplies its offspring when about to travel to the land of spirits; the deceased must have been an infant, for the trough was not more than twelve inches long. We were informed that among the Potawatomis, this is a frequent, though not an universal mode of disposing of their dead. These solid coffins or rude sarcophages are often suspended in trees.

We arrived at Fort Wayne at an early hour in the afternoon of the 26th of May. The distance from Wheeling to Columbus is one hundred and forty miles, which we travelled in six days, that from Columbus to Fort Wayne amounts to one hundred and fifty-eight miles, which were performed in the same time, making an average of twenty-five miles per day.

CHAPTER III.

Description of Fort Wayne and its vicinity. Fur trade. Potawatomis .

AT Fort Wayne we made a stay of three days, during which our time was usefully and agreeably employed in acquiring some information concerning the manners and institutions of the Indian tribes which inhabit its vicinity. To a person visiting the Indian country for the first time, this place offered many characteristic and singular features. The town or village is small; it has grown under the shelter of the fort, and contains a mixed and apparently very worthless population. The inhabitants are chiefly of Canadian origin, all more or less imbued with Indian blood. Not being previously aware of the diversity in the character of the inhabitants, the sudden change from an American to a French population, has a surprising, and to say the least, an unpleasant effect; for the first twenty-four hours, the traveller fancies himself in a real Babel. The confusion of languages, owing to the diversity of Indian tribes which generally collect near a fort, is not removed by an intercourse with their half-savage interpreters: The business of a town of this kind differs so materially from that carried on in our cities, that it is almost impossible to fancy ourselves still within the same territorial limits; but the disgust which we entertain at the degraded condition in which the white man, the descendant of the European, appears, is perhaps the strongest sensation which we experience, 0090 80 it absorbs all others. To see a being in whom, from his complexion and features, we should expect to find the same feelings which swell in the bosom of every refined man, throwing off his civilized habits to assume the garb of a savage, has something which partakes of the ridiculous, as well as of the disgusting. The awkward and constrained appearance of those Frenchmen who had exchanged their usual dress for the breech-cloth and blanket, was as risible as that of the Indian who assumes the tight-bodied coat of white men. The feelings which we experienced while beholding a little Canadian stooping down to pack up and weigh the hides which an Indian had brought for sale, while the latter stood in an erect and commanding posture, were of a mixed and certainly not of a favourable nature. At each unusual motion of the white man's, his dress, which he had not properly secured, was disturbed, and while engaged in restoring it to its proper place, he was the butt of the jokes and gibes of a number of squaws and Indian boys, who seemed already to be aware of the vast difference which exists between them and the Canadian Fur-dealer. The village is exclusively supported by the fur trade, and will probably continue to thrive as long as the Indians remain in any number in this vicinity. It has, however, declined from year to year, owing to the gradual diminution of the Indian population. The traders seldom leave the town, but they have a number of Canadians in their service, known by the appellation of Engagés , who accompany the Indians during their summer hunts, supply them with goods in small quantities, and keep an eye upon them, so that they should not defraud their employers by selling to others the produce of their hunts. The furs brought here consist principally of deer and raccoon skins bear, otter, and beaver, have become very rare. The 0091 81 skins, when brought by the Indians, are loosely tied or rolled; they are separated, folded, and made into packs three feet long and eighteen inches wide, which are exposed to a heavy pressure under a wedge press. These packs generally contain from forty to fifty deer skins, and about two hundred raccoon skins. Bear skins being rare, are not put up in packs, but are used to cover the other furs. The prices of skins vary every season, according to their quality and abundance. In 1823, the skins were worth at Fort Wayne—

For Deer, (bucks,) $1 25

(does,) 1 00

Raccoon 50

Bear $3 00 to 5 00

The amount of furs annually made up at this post is, as we were informed by a competent and disinterested judge, about two hundred packs, the average value of which may be fifty dollars each, making an aggregate of ten thousand dollars. But this value is rather a nominal than a real one, as the furs are paid for to the Indians at the prices just quoted, in goods which are passed off to them at a value at least double the amount of prime cost and expense of transportation. So that to the dealer the real expense attending the purchase of the furs does not amount to one-half of their nominal value. They are usually sent down the Maumee to Lake Erie, and thence to Detroit, where they are for the most part purchased by the American Fur Company. At the time when we visited Fort Wayne, the number of Indians there was considerable. This is one of the stations at which the Potawatomis, Miamis, &c. receive their annuities. The late Indian agent, Mr. Hays, was on the point of leaving the post, previously to which he was desirous of paying them an annuity, but this being 11 0092 82 the time of the year when they attend to their farming avocations, the chiefs had used their influence to keep their people from going to the fort. This delay prevented the immediate distribution of the annuity, and offered to the most idle and worthless of the tribes an inducement and an excuse for frequenting the town.

Fort Wayne, as it now stands, was erected in 1814, on the site of the old fort, the situation of which had been selected by General Wayne after his victory over the Indians. It is a square palisade, protected at two of its angles by block houses, calculated to be defended with artillery. The fort is considered as a good specimen of stockade fortification, which answers very well as a defence in Indian warfare. An improvement which it possesses, and which these works do not all present, is that of giving to the roofs of the barracks and other buildings enclosed by the palisade an inclination in one direction only, and this towards the area of the work; the advantage of which is to afford to the besieged a protection against their assailants, when forced to ascend the roofs, in order to put out fires occasioned by arrows conveying combustibles to the tops of houses, as is frequently practised by the Indians. The fort lies on the east side of St. Mary river, immediately opposite to its junction with the St. Joseph. On the other side of the Maumee we were shown the spot rendered conspicuous by the defeat of General Harmer's army in 1791. This might, we think, more correctly be called Harden's defeat, as by the account of it furnished both by Marshall and Ramsay, it appears that the detachment that was cut up was commanded by Colonel Harden. * Indeed, the whole of the country about the upper part of the Grand Miami and Maumee, (generally

* Marshall's life of Washington, Vol. 3. p. 302.

0093 83 called in the history of that war the Miami and Miami of the lake,) is interesting, as being the theatre of the war which raged from 1791 to 1794, when a stop was put to it by the great victory achieved by General Wayne over the confederated Indian nations, on the 20th of August of that year. This may be considered as one of the most memorable events in our history, since the close of the revolutionary war, as it was obtained in front of a British fort which had been erected at the Maumee rapids evidently for the protection of the Indians.

General Wayne's victory was soon followed by the treaty of Greenville, concluded by him in the succeeding year; a treaty “by which the expensive and destructive war which had long desolated that frontier, was ended in a manner perfectly agreeable to the United States.”

The situation of Fort Wayne was considered at the time of that treaty, as a favourable one to keep the Indians in check, and prevent the recurrence of the hostile measures which terminated in that treaty. It was one of the most western limits of Ohio for the protection of the frontiers. It must be admitted that its position is a very judicious one for a work of this kind, although it would be very improper in a war with an enemy possessed of artillery, as it is commanded by several eminences in the vicinity. During the late war, it was besieged for some time by the and a few men, were killed on both sides. The garrison having made resistance, the Indians cut a log into the form of a field-piece, painted it black, and placed it on one of the heights within gunshot of the fort; they then summoned the garrison to surrender. Although aware that all resistance against artillery would be vain, the officer in command refused to comply with the summons. When the 0094 84 Indians finding their ruse de guerre to be unsuccessful, raised the siege.

No garrison is at present kept up at this place, and it is probable that even in the case of a future war, this post like many others, formerly considered of great importance, will be so surrounded with a white population, as to render any military force in its vicinity unnecessary. The works offer now a comfortable and suitable residence to the gentlemen attached to the Indian department. The removal of the garrison, and the decrease of the fur trade, will probably affect for a while the growth of the settlement. But it will eventually resume the importance to which it is entitled from its advantageous situation; as a central point at which three respectable streams connect, it must become the seat of an extensive trade. The St. Mary being navigable during part of the year for one hundred and thirty miles, the St. Joseph for fifty miles, and the Maumee offering during the spring, to boats carrying three hundred barrels, a free navigation along the whole of its course to Lake Eric, (one hundred and sixty miles,) a considerable quantity of produce will necessarily pass at Wayne. The prosperity of the town will be increased by the arrangements made by the government of the United States for the sale of the public land in the vicinity. At the time we passed through, we were informed that all the land about the village, and even that upon which it stands, was public property, but that orders had been issued to sell the whole, with the exception of about thirty acres near the fort, which were reserved for the use of the Indian agency. This accounted for the mean appearance of the houses, which are of log, rudely put up, the roofs being made of clap boards kept down by logs. No person felt inclined to lay out money in building on property which could not be sold. The point 0095 85 of land upon whiCh the town stands appears to be sandy, and of an inferior quality, but we were told that a very excellent soil prevailed in the vicinity. It was expected that the property would sell well, and it was thought that the quarter section, (160 acres,) upon which the town is situated, would yield at public sale ten thousand dollars. We were somewhat surprised to find that the inhabitants of the town expressed no dissatisfaction at the prospect of the sale of a property upon which they had been residing, free of rent, for so many years, and that not the least question was raised as to the justice or propriety of a measure, by which they were about to be dispossessed of the small improvements which had been made by their fathers and themselves. But the population of Wayne partakes in this respect of the indifference and carelessness that characterize the two races from the admixture of which they have sprung. A circumstance which will add considerably to the future prosperity of Wayne, is its being at the commencement of the short portage of eight miles which separates the Maumee from the Wabash. An extensive trade has already been carried on through this route, and as it offers the most direct communication between the head of Lake Erie and the northern parts of Indiana, it will doubtless daily increase in importance.

In the vicinity of Fort Wayne, on the west bank of the river, we were shown a small tree growing on the spot where “Little Turtle” was buried. This was one of the most celebrated Indian chiefs ever known to white men. His character is well remembered by the old residents among the Indians, and from the accounts which have been given of him, we find but few names on record in the history of Indian chiefs that can be compared with his. His character will contrast advantageously with those of King 0096 86 Philip, Pontiac, and Tecumseh. The influence which he appears to have possessed over the Indians was unbounded. Under these circumstances, it is to be regretted that all the facts connected with his life and character, have not been collected with care. He is the same whom Volney describes as having met with in Philadelphia in the year 1798. From the abstract furnished us by this able traveller of the conversations which he had with Little Turtle and with his interpreter, captain Wells, we are led to form a very high opinion of the sound philosophy, and excellent judgment possessed by this chief. Of his military talents we can entertain no doubt, since it is well ascertained that to him is chiefly to be ascribed the success which the Indians met with during the years 1791 and 1792. Like King Philip, Tecumseh, &c. he is said to have entertained at one time the hope of forming an extensive coalition among the Indians, with a view to retrieve the soil of which they had been so unjustly deprived; but meeting with difficulties which he probably foresaw would be invincible, he, with more foresight than either of those chiefs, soon discovered that the day for such measures had long since passed away, and that the only advisable course, which remained for his nation to adopt, would be to make peace with the invaders, and endeavour to improve by their superior information. In this manner he succeeded in rescuing them from that destruction, to which King Philip and Tecumseh were hurrying on their brethren, at the time that they themselves became victims to the wars which they had been instrumental in producing. Doubtless his great spirit flattered itself with the hope, that by an advancement in the arts of civilized life, his brethren would regain that importance which they seemed to be on the point of losing for ever. His mind had predicted the awful consequences of the approach 0097 87 of white men. “No wonder,” said he, “the whites drive us every year further and further before them, from the sea to the Mississippi. They spread like oil on a blanket; and we melt like snow before the sun. If things do not greatly change, the red men will disappear very shortly.” How well-founded this apprehension has proved, and how rapidly the prediction has been verified, let the experience of every traveller to the west attest.

Little Turtle died in the year 1804 or 1805, and his death at that time is very much to be regretted, as the attachment which he had contracted for the American nation had become so great, that it is presumed he would have used his influence, which was very great, to prevent the Indians of that vicinity from joining the British during the late war; and no doubt can be entertained that a peaceful policy, if supported by a man of his weight, would have prevailed.

The naturalists to the expedition being aware that few or no skulls of Indians exist in the collections of our Atlantic cities, were desirous of procuring some, and among others they would have been pleased to obtain that of this celebrated chief. It would, in their opinion, have been interesting to observe, whether the examination of this head would have afforded any support to the new, and as yet uncertain, science of Phrenology. The principal traits which have been collected of the character of Little Turtle, might have been compared with the developements of the brain, and this comparison would perhaps have led to some interesting results. They were likewise in hopes, that by disintering it they might have rescued, (for a while at least,) from final decay, the head of one of the greatest men who, to our knowledge, have adorned the character of the American aborigines. But upon consulting with the 0098 88 gentlemen of the Indian department, they found that the memory of Little Turtle Was so much revered by his nation, and the visits of Indians to the grave of departed friends were so frequent, that such an attempt could not pass unnoticed, and that this apparent sacrilege would doubtless irritate them, and might lead to unpleasant consequences. The hope of obtaining this head was therefore abandoned.

The expedition was as kindly treated as they could have wished, by the gentlemen attached to the Indian department at this place. General Tipton, (the present Indian agent,) and Mr. Hays, (the late agent,) afforded them all the facilities in their power; and to Mr. Kercheval, the sub-agent, they are under great obligations for the information which his long experience of the Indians, and his acquaintance with their language enabled him to communicate. In order to afford to the party an opportunity of obtaining the best information, General Tipton sent for one of the principal chiefs in that vicinity, with whom they conversed for two days.

The name of this man is M[???]è-t[???]è-[???][???], (which signifies in the Potawatomi language, Kiss me .) He was represented to us as being the greatest chief of the nation; we had, however, an opportunity of ascertaining afterwards, that he is not the principal chief, but that he has, by his talents as a warrior, and his eloquence as an orator, obtained considerable influence in the councils of his nation. He may be considered as a partisan, who, by his military achievements, has secured to himself the command of an independent tribe. He resides on the St. Joseph, about nine miles above Fort Wayne, at an Indian village called M[???]s-kw[???]-w[???][???]-s[???][???]-p[???][???]-[???][???]-t[???][???]n, ( town of the old red wood creek. ) Being a chief of distinction, he came accompanied by his brother; as his rank required that he should be assisted by 0099 89 some one to light his pipe, and perform such other duties as always devolve upon attendants. Metea appears to be a man of about forty or forty-five years of age; he is a full-blooded Potawatomi; his stature is about six feet; he has a forbidding aspect, by no means deficient in dignity; his features are strongly marked, and expressive of a haughty and tyrannical disposition; his complexion is dark; like most of the Potawatomis whom we met with, he is characterized by a low, aquiline, and well-shaped nose; his eyes are small, elongated, and black; they are not set widely apart; his forehead is low and receding; the facial angle amounts to about 80°. His hair is black, and indicates a slight tendency to curl; his cheek bones are remarkably high and prominent, even for those of an Indian; they are not, however, angular, but present very distinctly the rounded appearance which distinguishes the aboriginal American from the Asiatic. His mouth is large, the upper lip prominent; there is something unpleasant in his looks, owing to his opening one of his eyes wider than the other, and to a scar which he has upon the wing of his nostril. On first inspection, his countenance would be considered as expressive of defiance and impetuous daring, but upon closer scrutiny, it is found rather to announce obstinate constancy of purpose, and sullen fortitude. We behold in him all the characteristics of the Indian warrior to perfection. If ever an expression of pity or of the kinder affections belonged to his countenance, it has been driven away by the scenes of bloodshed and cruelty through which he has passed. His dress was old and somewhat dirty, but appeared to have been arranged upon his person with no small degree of care; it consisted of leather leggings buttoned on the outside, a breech-cloth of blue broadcloth, and a short checkered shirt over it; the whole was covered with a 12 0100 90 blanket, which was secured round his waist by a belt, and hung not ungracefully from his shoulders; generally concealing his right arm, which is rendered useless and somewhat withered, from a wound received during the late war, when he attacked with a small party of Indians, the force that was advancing to the relief of Fort Wayne. His face was carefully painted with vermillion round his left eye. Four feathers, coloured without taste, hung behind him secured to a string, which was tied to a lock of his hair. In our second interview with him, he wore a red and white feather in his head, that was covered with other ornaments equally deficient in taste. Mr. Seymour took a likeness of him, which was considered a very striking one, by all who knew Metea. (Plate III.)

The chief was accompanied by his brother, who is much younger and resembles him, but whose features indicate a more amiable and interesting disposition. We observed, that during the interview, the latter treated Metea with much respect, always preparing and lighting his pipe, and never interfering in the conversation, unless when addressed by the chief. On entering the room where the gentlemen of the party were, Metea shook hands with the agent, but took no notice of the rest of the company, until General Tipton had explained to him, through his interpreter, the nature of the expedition; the objects Of his great father, the President, in sending it among; the Indians; and the information which would be expected from him; he informed him likewise that his time and trouble would be suitably rewarded. The chief then arose from his seat, shook hands with all who were present, told them that he would very willingly reply to all their questions, but that according to usage, he was bound to repeat to his nation all the questions that would be asked, and the replies which he would make; 0101 0102 0103 91 that there were certain points, however, on which he could give no information, without having first obtained the formal consent of his community; that on those subjects he would remain silent, while to all others he would reply with cheerfulness, and that after they should have concluded their inquiries, he would likewise ask them some questions, upon points which he thought concerned his nation, and to which he trusted they would in like manner reply. He then resumed his seat, and answered with much intelligence, and with a remarkable degree of patience, all the questions which were asked of him.

The Potawatomis, whose name as sounded by themselves, is P[???]-t[???]-w[???][???]-t[???][???]-m[???], (in their language, “we are making fire,”) appear to be connected not only by language but also by their manners, customs and opinions, with the numerous nations of Algonquin origin. The languages of all these nations bear evident marks of a common origin, and in some cases appear only to be dialects of the same tongue; and although diversities of dress and of dialect distinguish them, their customs and usages are evidently, for the most part, the same. Their traditions as to their origin are very uncertain. They believe that the first meeting between them and the Miamis occurred at a time not very remote.

The Potawatomis resided on the banks of Lake Michigan. Of their first meeting with the Miamis, the following tradition appears to be fresh in the recollection of all. It is said that a Miami, having wandered out from his cabin, met three Indians whose language was unintelligible to him; by signs and motions he invited them to follow him to his cabin, where they were hospitably entertained, and where they remained until dark. During the night, two of the strange Indians stole from the hut, while their comrade and host were asleep; they took a few embers from 0104 92 the cabin, and placing these near the door of the hut, they made a fire which, being afterwards seen by the Miami and his remaining guest, was understood to imply a council fire in token of peace between the two nations. From this circumstance the Miami called them in his language, W[???][???]-h[???][???]-n[???]-h[???], or the fire-makers, which being translated into the other language, produced the term by which this nation has ever since been distinguished. * All the Indians of this part of the country recognise their alliance with the Delaware Indians, whom they seem to consider as their forefathers, applying to them in councils the appellation of “GrandFathers,” and recognising their right of interfering and of deciding in last resort in all their national concerns. This right extends, however, only so far as to make their approbation necessary to the adoption of any important measure. Should it be withheld, the matter is again referred to the nations for consideration, in their separate councils, and should they persevere in the measure, it would bring on a separation of the alliance, and the nation refusing to submit to the decision of their grandfathers would be considered as strangers. No such instance is, however, recorded, and it is a remarkable trait in the character of all Indian institutions, as far as we have observed, that the principle of the binding influence of the will of the majority is unknown. In all their decisions, unanimity must be obtained, and very seldom fails to be procured. Firmness of purpose and an invincible perseverance in all plans against national enemies, seems with them to be

* This tradition, together with a considerable part of the circumstances which we shall embody in the following pages, was obtained from the Agent's Interpreter, Mr. Joseph Barron, a man whose long residence among the Indians, extensive acquaintance with their character, together with his unimpeachable veracity, confer much value upon all the information obtained from him.

0105 93 united to a great spirit of conciliation among themselves, and to an indifference as to the final result of any measure which they advocate in their councils. The success of a measure depends altogether upon the personal influence of the man who brings it forward. If he be one whom they deem wise in their generation, or if he be supposed to be gifted with supernatural talents, they will yield to his suggestions Without opposition, if on the contrary he be possessed of but little weight, he meets with no support, and his good sense probably induces him to relinquish his scheme.

When the Miamis first met with the Potawatomis, they applied to them the title of younger brothers; but this was afterwards changed, and their seniority acknowledged, from the circumstance that they resided further to the west; as those nations which reside to the west of others are deemed more ancient. This was settled in a council of the two nations, held some time after their first meeting; the Potawatomis being at present acknowledged and styled elder brothers, and the Miamis younger brothers: but the council fire is always held with the Miamis. By some it is mentioned, that they have no recollection of the Potawatomis having ever assisted at any council fire but one, which was held on the St. Joseph, (of Lake Michigan?) and at which the Chippewas, Potawatomis, and Ottowas were present. *

* This statement is taken from a valuable manuscript of observations concerning the Indians, communicated to the party by Dr. Thomas P. Hall, Surgeon U. S. A. Dr. Hall was stationed at Chicago at the time we visited that post. His opportunities of obtaining information were such, as to render his notes valuable, and they are particularly so in the medical parts, from which we bare made many extracts. As the observations, which he made, relate principally to the Potawatomis, it has been thought proper to connect them with those made at Fort Wayne.

0106 94

Their notions of religion appear to be of the most simple kind; they believe in the existence of an only God, whom they term K[???]-sh[???][???]-m[???]-n[???]t[???][???], or Great Spirit. Kasha means great, and Maneto an irresistible almighty being. The epithet of Kasha is never applied to any other word, but as connected with the Supreme Being. It would be highly indecorous to apply it to a house, a horse, or any other visible object. Yet it is, in a few instances, applied to a good man, in order to give more force to the expression, by connecting his good qualities with those which they ascribe to the Great Spirit. They recognise also an Evil Spirit, whom they call M[???]t-ch[???][???]-m[???]-n[???]-t[???][???], (from matcha, which signifies bad.) This unfavourable epithet is not restricted in its application, but is extended to all unpleasant or disagreeable objects. They consider themselves as indebted to the Good Spirit for the warm winds from the south, while the evil one sends the cold winds and storms of the north. The Matchamaneto resides in the cold regions of the north, where the sun never shines. The Kashamaneto, on the contrary, dwells at the “mid-day-sun's place.” Their worship appears to be principally addressed to the Evil Spirit, whom they think it expedient to propitiate; the good one needing no prayers, for his natural goodness will always induce him to assist and protect man without being reminded of it by his petitions; neither do they believe that their prayers to the Evil Spirit can in any manner displease the Good. In certain cases, however, as when afflicted with disease, or when impelled to it in a dream, they will offer a sacrifice of living animals to the Kashamaneto. This is generally done at the suggestion of one of the chiefs or leaders, who calls all the warriors together, explains to them his views, and appoints one of them to go in search of a buck, to another 0107 95 he commits the killing of a raccoon, to a third he allots some other animal to be killed; and when they have been successful in their respective hunts, they meet and fasten the first buck which they kill, upon a high pole, and leave it in this situation, so that it may serve as a sacrifice to the Great Spirit. Any other animal would answer as well as a buck. Upon the remainder of the chase they feast. After having boiled the animal, they partake of it in the name of the Great Spirit. The object of these sacrifices is to obtain luck in their pursuits, whether of hunting or fighting; these feasts are generally accompanied with prayers, dancing, singing, &c. The only period when they have regular sacrifices is during the winter and spring of the year; at which time, many of the warriors give feasts; each selects the time that suits him best, and invites such guests as he thinks proper. Having assembled them all, he rises, takes a sort of tambourine, formed by fastening a piece of skin or parchment upon a frame, he beats upon this and addresses himself to the divinity, accompanying his invocation by many violent gestures. They have no set form of prayer; when he has concluded, he resumes his seat, hands over the tambourine to another, who proceeds in the same manner. They have regular songs, which they sing together on such occasions. No other music is ever used but that of the tambourine. *

* Among the Shawanese there is a solemn festival called the green corn dance, which resembles the offering of the first fruits as enjoined to the Israelites. This practice is said to exist among the Greeks, Cherokees, and other southern tribes, but is unknown to the Potawatomis and other nations, which live in the neighbourhood of the Shawanese. It is said, that among the latter, however ripe an individual's corn may be, he will not pluck it until after the celebration of the festival.

0108 96

Among the Potawatomis polygamy is not only allowed, but even encouraged; a man has two or more wives, sometimes four, according to his skill and success as a hunter. The number of wives which an Indian keeps, is equal to that which he can support and maintain; he, therefore, that has many, is respected as being a better or a more favoured hunter than he that has but one wife. Dr. Hall observes that polygamy exists in the proportion of twenty-five per cent. that some men have three, four, or five wives, and one man was known to have eight. They appear to be very attentive to the proper education to be given to children, in order to impart to them those qualities both of the mind and body, which shall enable them to endure fatigue and privation, and to obtain an influence, either in the counsels of the nation, or during their military operations. When questioned on this subject, Metea replied, that while he was yet very young, his father began to instruct him, and incessantly, day after day, and night after night, taught him the traditions, the laws and ceremonies of his nation. “This he did,” said Metea, “that I might one day benefit my country with my counsel.” The education of boys generally commences at ten or twelve years of age; they accustom them early to the endurance of cold, by making them bathe every morning in winter. They likewise encourage them to habituate themselves to the privation of food. In this manner, children are observed to acquire, more readily, the qualifications which it is desirable for an Indian to possess. Parents use no compulsory means to reduce their children to obedience, but they generally succeed in obtaining a powerful influence over them, by acting upon their fears; they tell them that if they do not behave themselves as they are bid, that they will irritate the Great Spirit, who will deprive them of all luck as hunters, and as warriors. 0109 97 This, together with the constant and never ceasing importance, which the children observe, that their parents attribute to luck in all their pursuits, is found to have the desired effect upon the minds of young persons, fired with the ambition of becoming distinguished, at some future day, by their skill and success. Their fasts are marked by the ceremony of smearing their faces, hands, &c. with charcoal. To effect this, they take a piece of wood of the length of the finger, and suspend it to their necks, they char one end of it, and rub themselves with the coal every morning, keeping it on until after sunset. No person, whose face is blackened, dare eat or drink any thing during that time; whatever may be the cravings of his appetite, he must restrict them until the evening arrives, when he may wash off his black paint, and indulge, moderately, in the use of food. The next morning he repeats the ceremony of blackening his face, and continues it from day to day, until the whole of his piece of wood be consumed, which generally takes place in the course of from ten to twelve days.

After this term, they either suspend their mortifications, or continue them according as the exigencies of the ease seem to require. From the information which was communicated by the interpreter and others, it does not appear that, in any one instance, have the Indians ever been known to break their fasts, whatever may have been the temptation to which they were exposed; so powerful, indeed, is their superstitious dread of that ill luck, which would attach to a transgression of their rules, that even children have been, in vain, tempted to take food when at the houses of traders, and beyond the control of their parents; in all cases they have declined it; neither does it appear that, during those seasons of mortification, they indulge after sunset, in any unreasonable gratification of their 13 0110 98 appetite; in this respect, therefore, they prove themselves more consistent than the Mahometans, who are said while their Ramadan or lent lasts, to make up by the debaucheries in which they indulge in the night time, for the painful restrictions imposed upon them during the day, by the precepts of their prophet. The same apprehensions which will prevent an Indian, whether man or boy, from tasting food, while covered with his coating of charcoal, will not allow him to shorten the term of his penance by consuming the piece of wood too hastily. If he does not use it sparingly, he is certain that the charm or virtue with which he invests it, will be dispelled. In addition to these mortifications, the Indian attempts to impress upon his offspring a permanent and unshaken belief in the existence of a Great Spirit, ruler of the universe, whose attributes are kindness to men, and a desire of relieving them from all their afflictions: the necessity of doing all that may be grateful to him is often recurred to, in those exhortations by which every Indian parent instructs his sons, both morning and evening. It does not appear that the same care is extended to the religious principles of females. We never heard of their joining in fasts or mortifications; they are not allowed to take a part in the public sacrifices, and as they have no concern in the noble occupations of war or the chase, it probably matters but little whether or not they are agreeable in the sight of the Great Spirit. The only inducement which they have to pray is, that they may continue to hold a place in the affections of their husbands; but, as upon this point the men are quite indifferent, it would appear to them unworthy of their superior rank in creation, if they were to bestow a thought upon the subject.

Among the men of their own tribe, these Indians are represented as indulging in many of the virtues which have 0111 99 long been considered as peculiar to man in a state of civilization. Children incapacitated from labour, or exertion, by accident or deformity, are carefully attended to, and seldom allowed to suffer, from a privation of any of the comforts which the rest of the tribe enjoy. It is considered disgraceful in a man, to inflict any injury upon a helpless or unprotected person. In a few instances, it is said, that children born deformed have been destroyed by their mothers, but these instances are rare, and whenever discovered, uniformly bring them into disrepute, and are not unfrequently punished by some of the near relations. Independent of these cases, which are but rare, a few instances of infanticide, by single women, in order to conceal intrigue, have been heard of; but they are always treated with abhorrence. In like manner when going out on hunting excursions, elderly parents have been known to be abandoned, or exposed to a certain death, but these were likewise rare cases, which may be considered as always carrying with them a severe punishment by the utter contempt and detestation in which those who committed them were held. When questioned upon this point, Metes denied that it had ever happened; “as they have taken pains to raise us when we were young,” said he, “it is but fair that we should return this care to them in their old age.” Instances have however occurred even among the Potawatomis; one of which took place on the Milwacke, when a decrepid old woman, who had no horse to remove her from that place, was burned by them. In painful and violent diseases, Indians are sometimes killed at their own request, and afterwards burned to prevent contagion or the disease falling upon another. Their attentions to old persons, and their respect towards them, may be considered as one of the virtues in which they pride themselves most, 0112 100 and one of those which they exercise most frequently. To ideots they likewise generally extend a kind and humane treatment. By their relations, ideots are always treated with tenderness; but the idle and foolish, who are not connected with them, though they never abuse, will sometimes ridicule them; in this respect imitating the treatment to which they are so inhumanly, yet so frequently exposed, from the unthinking, even among civilized nations. There are some persons among them who think that ideots are possessed of more intellect than they make show of, and who believe them to be endowed with much intelligence, but by none are they held in the light of sorcerers. The same opinion is likewise entertained of insane persons, who are supposed by some to hold converse with the Deity; this opinion is not, however, universally adopted. Care is taken in the physical education of the Potawatomi from his earliest age, that his body should be straight and well-formed, no attempt is however made to change the shape of the head; the observations which have been made on this subject by various travellers, apply only to certain nations, one of which is designated by the term of Flat-heads , and it is highly incorrect to consider them as general. The shape of the head is one of the features which assists most in the discrimination of the various tribes. It is at least as easy for a person well acquainted with the Indians, to distinguish between the different nations, as it is among white men to observe differences between the various races that inhabit Europe; to an Indian this is even easier, as his long habits of scrutiny have made him quick at noticing differences which would escape the attention of less practised observers. “We know every tribe at first sight,” said Little Turtle, “the shape, colour, legs, knees, and feet, are all to us certain marks of distinction.”

0113 101

If in the intercourse of the Potawatomi with men of his own tribe, we observe many of the virtues and finer feelings which adorn mankind in all situations, we have, unfortunately, cause to regret that in his conduct towards other nations he appears under very disadvantageous colours. To a stranger, if he be not an enemy, it is true that he will extend the most unrestricted hospitality; his principles as well as his habits of life prevent his greeting him, or joining him in conversation; but all that the most liberal spirit can do, to secure to him a friendly and fraternal reception, is cordially done. In all his actions, words, and motions, the stranger must however take heed lest he reveal himself to be an enemy; for in that case, not the bread that they have been breaking together, nor the tobacco of which they have both smoked, nor the sacred laws of hospitality, could protect the guest from the sacrifice which the Potawatomi considers as enjoined upon him by the paramount obligation of destroying his enemy, or that of his nation, wherever he may meet with him. Their feeling of hatred and resentment against all nations with which they are at war, has led them to deeds, from the recital of which we shrink in disgust. Among these there is none more horrible, and on the subject of which so much difference of opinion has existed, as that of cannibalism, ascribed to them by numerous travellers. We find it asserted, in plain terms, by some of the oldest writers upon America; * but it has been brought into question by many,

* The fact which we advance here of the cannibalism of the Potawatomis, is not new as regards the North American Indians, though some travellers may have asserted it not to exist among them.

“I think,” says Hennepin, “that the Neros and Maximians of old never invented greater cruelties to test the patience of martyrs, than the torments to which the Iroquois expose their enemies. And when we saw that their children were cutting slices of flesh from the slave whom their parents hart murdered with the most unheard of cruelties; and that these young anthropophagi were eating the flesh of this man in our own presence, we withdrew from the hut of the chief, and we would eat with them no longer, and we retraced our steps through forests to Niagara river.” (page 40,) and again, in page 304.

“In this confusion it was not difficult for the Iroquois, united with the Miamis, to carry away about eight hundred slaves, both women and young men. These anthropophagi eat immediately several old men of the Illinois nation, and burned a few others who had not strength enough to follow them to the country of the Iroquois, more than four hundred leagues distant.” He however makes an exception in favour of the Nadiousioux, (Sioux?) whom he asserts, “not to be so inhuman, and not to partake of human flesh.” (Page 68. Description de la Louisianne, &c. &c. par le R. P. Louis Hennepin, &c. Paris. 1683. 12mo.)

Even Adair, who may be considered as the great skeptic on this subject, in the same page in which he rejects the charge as a false one, states that he could not learn “that they had eaten human flesh, only tim heart of the enemy, which they all do sympathetically, (blood for blood,) in order to inspire them with courage.” * * * * “To eat the heart of an enemy will, in their opinion, like eating other things before mentioned, communicate and give greater heart against the enemy,” &c. Page 135. History of the American Indians, by James Adair, Esq. London, 1774, 4to.

0114 102 who, having never visited the Indians, have been influenced by a laudable incredulity, springing doubtless from a justifiable wish to close their eyes and ears against evidence which bears so hardly upon human nature. With these feelings the gentlemen of the expedition first heard the reports of the anthropophagy of the Potawatomi, and yielded but an unwilling ear to every thing that could induce a belief in the existence of this disgusting trait in the character of the north-west Indians. Truth compels them however to assert, that the reports which they have received on this subject were so frequent, so circumstantial, 0115 103 and derived from such respectable sources, that any concealment of it, or any apparent incredulity on their part, would be a dereliction of duty. Even the most incredulous of the party, or those disposed to entertain the most favourable opinion of the Indians, were at last compelled to acknowledge that all doubt on the subject had been removed from their minds. They have been asked, whether they had ever been present at such a feast, and they have heard it asserted by respectable persons, that nothing but the autoptical observation of the travellers could induce them to place any credit in this imputed cannibalism; to this it may be replied that, travelling as they did, at a time when the Indians were comparatively in a state of peace, when few and but accidental hostilities had occurred between them, and these always at a distance from the route which they pursued; it could not be expected that they should have been themselves eye witnesses to these infamous orgies. But if it can be adduced in support of their assertion, that the fact has been acknowledged by the Indians themselves, by those that had perpetrated the deed, that it has been uniformly admitted by the interpreters and traders who have long resided among them, who are connected to them by intermixtures, who are themselves partly Indians, and who declare having been present at the time it took place; if the names of the individuals Who became victims to it, can be mentioned, if the additional circumstance of its having been observed at several thousands of miles distance, but among those Indians who are known to be of the same nation, and who speak dialects of the same language be taken into consideration, if these facts should be corroborated by names expressive of this custom, given to certain localities by the Indians themselves, 0116 104 and if all these should be found to concur with the observations recorded in the histories of the first travellers in America, (who, whatever may have been their errors, must be considered as having adhered more closely to truth than is generally supposed,) then with all this circumstantial evidence, strongly and uniformly bearing on one side of the question, is it possible for the most skeptical to refuse his belief to this fact, whatever may be the horrour which attends it. We are far however from asserting, that this practice has prevailed universally among the Indians; the evidences on the subject of the cannibalism of the Dacota or Sioux Indians, (Naudowessies of Carver,) are too few and too suspicious; they are refuted by too many contradictory facts to permit us to place any confidence in them; but the case is otherwise with the Chippewas, the Miamis, the Potawatomis, and all the other Indian nations which are known to be of Algonquin origin.

The motives which impel them to cannibalism are various: in some eases it is produced by a famine over the country, and of this we shall be able to cite a number of well attested instances, some of which carry with them very horrible features, when we treat of the Chippewa tribes west of Lake Superior. Another, and a more frequent cause, is the desire of venting their rage upon a defeated enemy, or a belief that by so doing, they acquire a charm that will make them irresistible. It is a common superstition with them, that he that tastes of the body of a brave man acquires a part of his valour, and that if he can eat of his heart, which by them is considered as the seat of all courage, the share of bravery which he derives from it is still greater. It matters not whether the foe be a white man or an Indian, provided he be an enemy, it is all that is required, 0117 105 Mr. Barron has seen the Potawatomis, with the hands and limbs, both of white men and Cherokees, which they were about to devour.

It is well attested, that one of the officers, attached to General Harmer's command, was taken prisoner by the Miamis, previously to the defeat of the whole army; and tortured by them in the most cruel and unrelenting manner for three days, on the west bank of the Maumee. The Indians declared that he had behaved with a remarkable degree of fortitude. Pieces of flesh were cut from his body, roasted and eaten by them in the presence of the agonized victim. No exclamation or groan could be drawn from the intrepid prisoner, until a squaw thrust a burning brand into his privates, when he was heard to exclaim, “Oh my God!” A young Indian warrior then declared, that the prisoner having proved himself a brave man, should no longer be kept in agony, and put a period to his sufferings by despatching him with his tomahawk.

One of the best attested instances, is that of Captain Wells, who was killed after the capture of Chicago in 1812. This man, who had been a long time among the Indians, having been taken prisoner by them at the age of thirteen, had acquired a great reputation for courage; and his name is still mentioned as the bravest white man with whom they ever met. He had almost become one of their number, and had united himself to a descendant of Little Turtle. At the commencement of hostilities between Britain and the United States he sided with his own countrymen, while the Indians of this vicinity all passed into the British service. When the fort was afterwards besieged by the united Indians, Captain Wells was there, having arrived two days prior with the orders from General Hull for the evacuation of the post. Wells was killed after the action, his body 14 0118 106 was divided, and his heart was shared, as being the most certain spell for courage, and part of it was sent to the various tribes in alliance with the Potawatomis, while they themselves feasted upon the rest.

Among some tribes, cannibalism is universal, but it appears that among the Potawatomis it is generally restricted to a society or fraternity, whose privilege and duty it is on all occasions to eat of the enemy's flesh; at least one individual must be eaten. The flesh is sometimes dried and taken to the village. Not only are the members of this fraternity endowed with great virtues, but they can impart them by means of spells to any individual whom they wish to favour. No warrior can be elected into the association, except by the unanimous consent of all its members. In such a case, the candidate for this distinction, which is held in great esteem, makes a fine present to the society. We shall have an opportunity of recurring on some future occasion to this subject, and we shall be enabled to prove tim participation in this nefarious practice, of many Indian tribes collected together on a memorable occasion, at the siege of Fort Meigs, in 1813. We do not wish to be considered as advancing the doctrine that human flesh is usually, or as a matter of preference, eaten by these Indians, or by any others with whom we may have met, but that it has been eaten on many occasions under the most aggravating circumstances, and without the least shadow of necessity, we consider as fully established.

Of their first origin, their ideas appear to be very confused. They all consider the earth as their mother, and some of them are impressed with the belief that they formerly resided under ground, and that they rose out from it. On this subject Mr. Keating held a conversation of better than an hour with Richarville, one of the principal chiefs of the Miamis, who 0119 107 gave him a long but confused account of the division which exists among the Miamis, into two tribes, one of which considers itself as having risen from the waters, and the other from the centre of the earth. Those of Neptunian origin, made their way as is believed, to the surface, by climbing up trees, &c. The man who gave this account is a half-breed Miami, his father being a Frenchman; he speaks very good French. At the time we saw him, he was dressed like a trader, and from his appearance, manners and language, we should never have suspected him to be any other than a Canadian fur-dealer. He is said, however, to possess considerable influence with his tribe. He sometimes assumes the Indian costume, with the exception of the blanket, for which he always substitutes a capote . In the conversation which we had with him, we had reason to consider him as well entitled to the reputation which he has acquired, of being one of the most artful and deceitful of his nation. He declined meeting the party in conference, stating that the other chiefs of his tribe were absent, and that the circumstance of his holding a conference with white men might expose him to suspicion, which would the more readily attach to him on account of his being himself but a half-breed. This reason was too plausible to allow of our objecting to it; and we regretted that we could not test the sincerity of his offer, to answer all our questions, in a few days, when the other men of his nation would have arrived. The gentleman of the party who conversed with him, noticed that he had never met with a man whose manners evinced so much cunning and subtilty as those of this chief. Affecting not to understand questions to which he did not choose to reply, and involving all his answers in obscurity, he imparted no information concerning the points upon which he was questioned, except in the instance 0120 108 already alluded to, of the division of the Miamis into two tribes, whose origins are supposed to be so different. This might be considered as very interesting, if any confidence could be placed in such a man as Richarville. Of his craft and worthlessness, an idea can be formed from the circumstance that, when negotiating on the part of the Miamis a treaty with the commissioners at Chicago, he made it an indispensable condition that a tract of nine sections of land should be secured to him in fee simple, while the rest of his nation are merely joint tenants on their lands, and destitute of the privilege of disposing of the same, except with the consent of the Government of the United States. It must be regretted, that this mode of obtaining the assent of chiefs, to a treaty by private presents, grants, &c. should have ever been allowed. It was, we believe, first introduced by the French, whose object was, by these pretended treaties, to which the chiefs of the nations were bribed to give their consent, to obtain a colour of right which the French government Could afterwards maintain against European nations. This practice has existed so long, and is so universal, that it would perhaps be difficult to make a treaty with the Indians, if presents or grants were withheld from the chiefs; but in order to test the correctness of the principle, we need but took to the feelings which would be excited if an European power, while discussing the terms of a treaty with our government, were to offer or to consent to give any private presents to the negotiators on the part of our country. Richarville retains his attachment to the British government, and although residing upon our territory, and sharing in the annuity paid by the United States to the Miamis, he still holds a commission in the British service, and his name still appears on the half-pay or pension list of Great Britain.

Metea told us that the Potawatomis thought that they 0121 109 had always existed in the neighbourhood of Lake Michigan. That the first man and woman had been made by the Great Spirit. God sowed the seed and the men sprang up. When called upon to explain what he meant by this, he gave to understand that he had used the language in a figurative point of view, and as a parable. Their tradition at first mentioned but one original couple, the parents of the red people, from whom they believed themselves to have descended. But when they became acquainted with the different races of men, they supposed a couple of white, and another of black, had likewise been created by the Great Spirit, and that these had given rise to the white and black people whom they had since seen, but he had not troubled himself much with thinking on this subject. Soon after the white men came among them, they were told that, far to the setting sun, there was a race of people whose features and complexion resembled theirs. This had led them to think upon and discuss this matter frequently among themselves; they had often enquired from other nations whence they came, but, they found strong reasons to adhere to their old traditions, that the land on which they now resided was that upon which the Great Spirit had first placed them. Metea has always been of the opinion that there is but one God, who is a Supreme Being, but that he has made a Spirit or God to be under him, whose special duty it is to take charge of the Indians. This he thought to be the common opinion of all Indians whom he knew. This inferior Deity stood to the Supreme Being in the same relation that the red man stands to the white. The existence of a Bad Spirit is considered as proved by the circumstance of there being bad men, for a Good Spirit could not have made any thing that was evil.

When questioned as to his opinion of a future life, and 0122 110 the immortality of the soul, he unhesitatingly replied that he had heard the white men talk of those things, but had no belief whatever in them. He thought that after death both body and spirit decayed and disappeared; nor would he at all acknowledge a belief in the doctrine which we had heard asserted by the interpreter, as generally entertained by the Indians, that the spirits of the departed returned after death to the Master of Life. In replying to this question he made use of a strong expression, “as a dog dies, so man dies—the dog rots after death, so does man decay after he has ceased to live.” Being asked if it was true that they placed provisions near the dead, both at the time of death and afterwards, and if true, wherefore this was done, if both spirit and body decayed together? He replied, that this custom really prevailed, but he knew of no other foundation for it, than a dream of one of their ancestors, that a departed friend had appeared to him, and told him he was hungry, which induced him to take provisions to the grave of that man—he knew of no other cause for it. We felt some anxiety to obtain a more satisfactory answer from Metea on this point, as we knew that at the funeral of a nephew of his, he had once expressed himself thus in the presence of Mrs. Hackley, * who repeated it to Major Long. “His spirit has fled upon a long journey, and you must give him provisions that he may feed upon during his journey.” Although all our attempts at obtaining a different answer from Metea proved abortive, we incline to the opinion that the doctrine of the immortality of

* Mrs. Hackley is the daughter of the late Captain Wells, by a Miami squaw, who was either the daughter or adopted child of Little Turtle. Having received her education among white men, she unites to the manners of civilized life, many of the interesting peculiarities which distinguish mankind in its primitive state.

0123 111 the soul, and of a future state of reward and punishment, is generally entertained by them, and that it probably preexisted to their intercourse with white men. Our opinion does not merely rest upon the general prevalence of this belief among all those who have made the least advance above the lowest state of barbarism, but upon the uniform opinion on this subject, expressed to us by those who were most conversant with Indian manners, and who had enjoyed the best opportunities of becoming acquainted with them. From Mr. Barron we heard that they generally admitted the existence of a future life, of which, however, they entertained very confused ideas, believing for the most part that the spirits of those who had lived a good life, went to a country where they could pursue without fatigue their favourite occupation of hunting, where animals would be plenty and fat. Not so with the spirits of the bad; theirs would be a country barren and nearly destitute of animals, where the chase would become a painful and unprofitable occupation. At any rate, they hold that their existence is at the disposal of the Great Master of Life. Many, however, when asked where their spirits went after death, carelessly replied that they knew not what became of them, they saw them not leaving the body. One of the strongest facts in corroboration of their entertaining a belief in futurity, and the immortality of the soul or spirit, is, that they all believe in ghosts or phantoms. “Once,” said Mr. Baron, “on approaching in the night a village of Ottawas, I found all the inhabitants in confusion; they were all busily engaged in raising noises of the loudest and most inharmonious kind. Upon inquiry, I found that a battle had been lately fought between the Ottawas and the Kickapoos, and that the object of all this noise was to prevent the ghosts of the departed combatants from entering the village.”

0124 112

It is impossible in seeing them at present, not to feel convinced that the time for correct information has passed away; they have imbibed from the missionaries so many notions which certainly did not belong to them originally, and the crafty policy of their chiefs to counteract the effect of their intercourse with white men, has raised so many idle and false traditions, that it is difficult to distinguish the genuine from the false doctrines attributed to these nations in their original state. Of the many interesting customs, which, according to their traditions, were formerly prevalent among them, the dereliction of none is more to be regretted than of that which accompanied their marriage ceremony. This has now nearly disappeared from the face of the country. Their intermarriages with other nations have become so frequent, and the demoralizing tendency of their intercourse with the traders has been so great, that it has led them to neglect practices which were recommended to them by a venerable antiquity.

The form of courtship which existed formerly, is stated to have been as follows; when a young man had conceived an attachment for a female, or that he wished to make her his wife, be gave the first intimation of his design, by throwing a deer into the lodge belonging to the girl's parent. This he would repeat for several days, from ten to fifteen, after which the father usually asked him what object he had in doing so, and whether it was to obtain his daughter. The young man having replied in the affirmative, the relations of the girl would, if they approved of the connexion, prepare a dress for the youth, which they would take to his house, and there the damsel's father would invest him with it. He would then take him home with him and introduce him to the bride; there the lover remained for the space of ten or twelve days, until his 0125 113 friends had prepared the presents they intended for his wife's family, and had taken them to their house. It was usual for the young couple to dwell with the wife's parents for the term of a year, during which time the husband was, as it were, a servant in the family, giving to his father-in-law all the produce of his hunt. At the expiration of this term, he was at liberty to remove his wife to his own house, and treat her as he pleased. The opinion which is entertained by the Missouri Indians, and by all those who reside along the banks of the Mississippi, that it would be the height of indecorum in a man to speak, or even to look upon his son-in-law, does not exist at present, and is believed never to have prevailed among the Potawatomis. The power of the husband over his wife was unlimited, he might even put her to death if he chose, and she had lost all claim to the sympathy and protection of her own relations. They never would resent any treatment which she had been made to endure. There was no fixed time for marrying; girls were sometimes betrothed at a very early age, long before maturity. The presents which it was customary to make, were of the most valuable kind, and consisted of horses, venison, guns, &c. In some instances it happened that the parties were mutually attached, and that they contracted a secret engagement marrying without the consent of their parents. But these breaches of ceremony were usually made up, by the interchange of presents between the parents on both sides, who then confirmed the marriage.

It was usual for them, when an Indian married one of several sisters, to consider him as wedded to all; and it became incumbent upon him to take them all as wives. The marrying of a brother's widow was not interdicted, but was always looked upon as a very improper connexion. 15 0126 114 The union of persons related by blood was likewise disliked, and discouraged. An incestuous connexion was at all times considered as highly criminal, but no punishment was attached to it. Instances of it are not, however, as rare as might be expected. Among the Potawatomis we heard of several. We were told at Chicago of two cases, which were accompanied by circumstances of an aggravating nature. A Potawatomi of the name of W[???][???]-g[???]-k[???][???]-n[???]-g[???][???]n, died a short time since, aged about fifty; he had married his mother-in-law, previous to which he had been connected with two of his daughters. He denied the connexion, with his elder daughter, who, however, acknowledged that he had seduced her, by promising to teach her a spell by which she would be enabled to destroy her enemies, by writing their names on sand. A few months afterwards, he was detected in an intercourse with his second daughter, whom he had likewise seduced. Both the women openly confessed their guilt, but with very little appearance of shame. This did not prevent their marrying subsequently. After these abominable transactions, he married their grandmother, who was the mother of his first wife. Another man belonging to the same nation, and who had become a chief by the death of his brother, is known to have had intercourse with a woman that was the mother of his first wife. He afterwards deserted both, and took a third wife. The two other women, both mother and daughter, were subsequently married; this man's name was [???]-z[???]n-[???][???]-t[???][???]p, ( Yellow-head. ) But all these connexions are held in utter abhorrence by the nation at large, and those who contract them are considered as base and worthless members of the community.

The circumstances which attend funerals are likewise worthy of notice. They have, it is true, but few ceremonies 0127 115 at the time of the removal of the corpse; but the manner in which this duty is performed deserves mention. The greatest pains are taken that all should be transacted in the most decorous manner; the spot selected is always as dry as the circumstances of the place will admit of. The body of the deceased is clothed in his best garments, and, if the relations can afford it, new clothes are obtained for this purpose. His moccassins, rifle, knife, money, silver ornaments, in fine, the whole of his property are placed near him: the corpse is laid with its face turned to the east. A small quantity of food is placed near the head. The funeral is generally attended by all the relations, who express their grief by weeping; but yells, dances, &c. are not customary on such occasions. The deceased is buried in an erect, seated, or inclined posture, according to the wishes and directions which he may have given previously to his death, for these are always most implicitly obeyed. The graves in which they are buried are generally from four to five feet in depth. If the deceased had previously to his death expressed a wish to be deposited in a tree, this is attended to; otherwise the corpse always interred. When the corpse is to be deposited in a tree, it is first sowed up in a blanket, and this is suspended to the branches. The friends of the deceased visit it frequently, until they observe that the body is decaying; they then shake hands with it, and bid it a last farewell; but even after this they return yearly to visit the spot where it is deposited, and they uniformly leave some food near it. At the time of the funeral, they frequently light a fire near the head of the grave, and upon this they prepare their feast, throwing a part of the food on the grave for the use of their friend. If they have whiskey, they likewise scatter some on the ground, but of this they are sparing, doubtless from 0128 116 the belief that the living require it much more than the dead. An invocation is then made to the deceased, who is entreated to speed his course direct to the Great Prairie, without casting his eyes back; for they hold, that if on his way to the land of Spirits, he were to look behind him, it would bring ill luck upon some one of his relations, to whom it would be a signal, that his company was required by his departed friend. It is usual to mark the grave with a post, on which are inscribed in hieroglyphics the deeds of the deceased, whether in the way of hunting or of fighting. It is not uncommon for the survivors to adopt a male or female child as a substitute for their lost relative. When they bury a corpse in a trough hollowed out of a tree, they prefer one of ash wood, as they observe that it is less easily penetrated by water.

We are informed, that they profess to have been well acquainted with the art of making maple sugar previous to their intercourse with the whites. Our interpreter states, that having once expressed his doubts on the subject in the presence of José Renard, a Kickapoo chief, the latter answered him immediately, with a smile, “can it be that thou art so simple as to ask me such a question, seeing that the Master of Life has imparted to us an instinct which enables us to substitute stone hatchets and knives for those made of steel by the whites; wherefore should we not have known as well as they how to manufacture sugar? He has made us all, that we should enjoy life; he has placed before us all the requisites for the support of existence, food, water, fire, trees &c.; wherefore then should he have withheld from us the art of excavating the trees in order to make troughs of them, of placing the sap in these, of heating the stones and throwing them into the sap so as to cause it to boil, and by this means reducing it into 0129 117 sugar.” In this short reply of the Kickapoo, we have a brief sketch of the rude process practised by the Indians in the preparation of the maple sugar. Previously to this they had learned the art of making and using pottery, but had abandoned it for the purpose, as Metea told us, of using wooden troughs, and hot stones, perhaps because their pottery did not stand fire well. The evaporation resulting from the action of the hot stones, produced a crystallization of sugar in the trough. Their process was a tedious and imperfect one, which probably required much time before it could be improved; to use the language of Nacoma, a Delaware, “Brother, there is a great difference between the white man and the Indian; we believe that we are not endowed with the same natural advantages which you possess, since we discover those things alone which nature places before us; we derive advantage of such tools and implements as she has provided for us, only so far as they appear to us useful, but without, any attempt to inquire into their nature; you, on the contrary, have received from the Master of Life, the disposition to erect to yourselves a system of education that enables you to treasure up the knowledge which you may have acquired, to endeavour to prosecute your discoveries, to make new applications of them, and to dive into those things with which you are unacquainted.” We shall have an opportunity of comparing these ideas of the Delaware chief with the reflexions made by a Sauk Indian, who attended the expedition as a guide, and we shall be confirmed in the belief that, with all their apparent contempt for the whites, the Indians are frequently obliged to acknowledge the superiority of the civilized man, which however they improperly consider as the cause, and not as the effect of civilization.

The use of salt previously to the arrival of Europeans is 0130 118 likewise claimed by the Indians. They trace the origin of their acquaintance with this valuable condiment, to the observation of the preference given by elks to the water from salt licks; having tasted it, they liked it, and took some to boil their vegetables with, and having found it palatable, they boiled down the water in the manner that they had done the sap, and thus obtained salt. It is not improbable, that the sediments of white salt, which are frequently observed during dry seasons, in the vicinity of salt springs, may have taught them that it was by evaporation that the substance could be separated from the water which holds it in solution; for although the Indians were totally ignorant of the nature and causes of evaporation, they had noticed the process, and were aware, that it could result as well from the action of fire as from that of the sun.

Prior to their intercourse with white men, it appears that these Indians were not acquainted with any intoxicating liquors; if we except a decoction of a plant resembling the whortleberry, which was used by the Chippewas in cases of sickness only; it produced vertigo. As this fact was ascertained by Dr. Hall at Chicago, where the Chippewas and Potawatomis frequently meet, it is not improbable that the latter were also acquainted with it, but it was never used except in cases of sickness. To the Europeans they are therefore indebted for all the evils which have attended too free a use of spirituous liquors.

The Potawatomis are not divided into tribes, designated by the name of animals, as is reported to be the case with the Missouri Indians, but they are distinguished merely from their local habitations. Those that live on the St. Joseph form a small tribe, in every respect similar to those residing near Chicago, or near Lake Michigan. Although not divided into regular tribes, they have a sort of 0131 119 family distinction, kept up by means of signs resembling those of heraldry. These signs are by them called T[???][???]-t[???][???]m; they are taken from an animal or from some part of it, but by no means imply a supposed relationship with that animal, as has been incorrectly stated. It is merely a distinguishing mark or badge, which appears to belong to every member of a family, whether male or female. The latter retain it even after matrimony, and do not assume that of their husbands. It does not appear that this implies the least obligation of the Indian, to the animal from which it is taken. He may kill it or eat it. The totem appears to answer no other purpose than that of distinguishing families; it does not imply any degree of nobility or inequality of rank among them. It is the same custom, which is improperly attributed by Carver to the Dacota or Sioux Indians, (Naudowessie.)

Independently of the name which he bears, and of the totem or badge of family to which he lays claim, an Indian has frequently a kind spirit to watch over him and assist him. This tutelar saint is of course held in high veneration, and nothing is done that could in the least offend him. The mode in which each Indian becomes acquainted with the name or nature of this ministering spirit, is by dreams, in which he fancies that the Master of Life reveals himself to him in his sleep, under the form of some tangible object in creation, generally of an animal; under this shape the Great Spirit holds converse with him, and the Indian ever after supposes that this is the form in which he may expect to see the Great Spirit appear to him. To this animal, whom he considers as a medium of communication between him and the Master of Life, he addresses his prayers and states his wants; he consults it in all his difficulties, and not unfrequently conceives that 0132 120 he has derived relief from it. Of course, he abstains from eating of the animal, and would rather starve than sacrilegiously feed upon his idol. But he holds the animal as a friend to himself alone. He knows that others have different spirits, and hence does not think himself bound to protect that animal against his companions, because he knows that there is no virtue in the animal for any one but himself. Sometimes, instead of the whole animal, it is only in some part of it that the charm resides, and in this case he will feel no hesitation in eating of all the other parts of the beast.

In their conversation, the Indians frequently display considerable humour. Their attempts at wit are numerous, and often successful; but their wit as well as the general tenour of their conversation, is obscene; in proof of this, we might, if it were necessary, mention several instances; but they have been so frequently noticed by the travellers that have preceded us, that we feel ourselves excused from doing it. As an instance of an attempt at what they consider as wit, the following was related to us; an Indian called for milk; when they were about to give him some, he pointed to a whiskey bottle, and observed that it was the milk of that black cow, that he wanted. Such an observation is sure to draw peals of laughter from all about them, which encourages them to proceed. But perhaps, the most remarkable trait in their conversation is, that they feel none of that delicacy or restraint, which among civilized nations has proscribed many words from general use. With them every idea which enters into their head, or every word which they think of, is uttered without any respect for the company present. With this apparent obscenity in their conversation, the Indians are very guarded in their actions, and their manners indicate 0133 121 a considerable degree of native modesty. In this they generally excel the white men who live with them; and it is a fact, well attested by the experience of all who have spent any time among them, that they are seldom or never observed in an obscene or indecorous attitude.

Metea was asked, whether he had ever heard of any tradition accounting for the formation of those artificial mounds, which are found scattered over the whole country; when he immediately replied, that they had been constructed by the Indians as fortifications, before white men had come among them. “After men had been made,” said he, “they scattered themselves over the surface of the earth, and lost all knowledge of each other. When they afterwards met, it was with fear and caution; they were engaged in wars, during which they erected these works, which served for defence, until treaties and alliances were made between them.” He has always heard this origin ascribed to them, and has known three of those constructions which are supposed to have been made by his nation. One is at the fork of the Kankakee and the Des Plaines rivers, a second on the Ohio, which, from his description, was supposed to be at the mouth of the Muskingum; he visited it, but could not describe the spot very accurately; and a third, which he had also seen, he states to be on the head waters of the St. Joseph of Lake Michigan. This latter is at about forty miles north-west of Fort Wayne, and five or six miles distant from an Indian village called Mangokwa, on a small stream which empties into the St. Joseph; it is a round hill about as large as Fort Wayne. Major Long, who has seen those on the St. Joseph and at the mouth of the Kankakee, on a former visit to this country, considers them as natural, and not artificial elevations. One of the Miami chiefs whom the traders have named Legros, once told Barron that he had heard that his father had fought 16 0134 122 with his tribe in one of the forts at Piqua; that the fort had been erected by the Indians against the French, and that his father had been killed during one of the assaults made upon it by the French.

The chiefdom is hereditary among the Potawatomis. If a chief should be destitute of male heirs, sons or nephews, he assembles the warriors of his tribe, and appoints one of them as his successor. Should he die without leaving any male heir, and without having adopted any, then the warriors convene and appoint one of their number to succeed to the vacant dignity; “for a nation cannot exist” says Metea “without a leader.” In their councils no regular debate takes place. The first man who is nominated as chief, generally unites all votes; it is evident that much must depend upon the influence of him who nominates a candidate. It is, however, usual to ascertain the wish of the people beforehand, and for this reason they are always consulted.

In like manner, if a man be desirous of leading a war-party, he mentions it to others, secures their assistance, and then publicly announces his intention in the village, when such as please follow him. Previous to his departure, he performs his religious ceremonies, and prepares what is termed his “medicine” or spell, by which he hopes to insure success. If the chief of the village be opposed to the scheme, he undertakes to prevent it, by influencing their superstitious fears. To this effect, he counteracts, as they suppose, the spells prepared by the warrior, by walking round him in a circle, and then resuming his place. This they so firmly believe to vitiate the medicine, that it immediately puts a stop to the expedition. The power of the chief appears to rest exclusively upon his personal influence. He can use no coercive measures to obtain what he wishes, or prevent what he dislikes. 0135 123 Although the Indians have notions of right and wrong, they have no means of rewarding the former and redressing the latter; the chief cannot punish a man for any offence whatsoever. If the crime committed be flagrant, the party that deems itself injured may seek for redress in a forcible manner, but there is no mode of obtaining it by fair and legal means. In some cases, however, a breach of faith may be punished; if, for instance, a chief wishes to undertake a military operation, he convenes his warriors, and states his views; should they agree to it, they declare their assent by presenting him with a string of wampum, which is kept as an evidence of their acquiescence. Should any one of those who have agreed to go, afterwards break his promise, he is liable to be punished by forfeiture of part of his property, or by expulsion from the village. A string of wampum is sometimes sent from one village to another, with a piece of tobacco attached to it as a proof of the faith of the messenger. It has often been stated, that the Indians in no instance whatever punished their children. This is not correct as a general rule. Mr. Colhoun was informed, that the Potawatomis sometimes enjoin upon their children, as a punishment, the use of the charcoal and its accompanying fast. He also observes, that the circumstance of chastisement being inflicted by some Indians, is confirmed by Joutel's statement, that the Illinois and Cadoquias punished their children by throwing water in their faces; and by Jones's observations, that the Shawanese had the same practice, and likewise threw them into brooks. * The power of the chief is only exercised as

* Vide “Journal Historique du dernier Voyage de M. de la Salle, par Joutel.” Paris, 1713, p. 284 and 342, and “Journal of two visits to some nations of Indians west of Ohio river, in 1772 and 1773, by Rev. D. Jones.”

0136 124 long as he behaves himself in a manner agreeable to the wishes of his warriors, for though the dignity be a hereditary one, it is not uncommon for them to depose their chiefs. The principal prerogative of the chief is to conduct all military operations; when once war is declared, he cannot conclude peace without the consent of his warriors. The duty of dividing the annuity paid to them by the United States' Government, likewise devolves upon the chief. Formerly the partition was made by him in the manner that he thought best, but some cases of malversation have led to a different method. The money is paid to the principal chief of the nation, who calls his people round him, places them in a circle, and then throws a dollar to each, all round, continuing this operation until the whole of the money be disposed of. In this division the father of a family receives an equal share for every individual in his household, whether male or female, child or adult. The annuities paid to the Miamis amount to eighteen thousand dollars. The last census, taken a few years since, made their numbers eleven hundred and seventy-two, of whom three hundred were warriors. An accurate amount of the Potawatomi population could not he obtained here; it has been variously stated; we heard it rated at ten thousand, which is probably far beyond the true number. Those who receive their annuities at Fort Wayne, are not numerous, and the census of Indians in the state of Illinois does not admit of more than twelve hundred Potawatomis. The payment of their annuities on the United States' territory, is very much to be regretted; they ought to be paid to them on the Indian reservations, where by a humane law no spirituous liquors can be sold; if some means were taken of holding a sort of fair for cattle, and implements of agriculture, at the time that the annuity is paid, they might, perhaps, 0137 125 be induced to apply to the purchase of useful objects, the money which is at present wasted in procuring spirits. Under the present system, the moment an Indian receives his annuity, he immediately converts it into whiskey; the deplorable effects of which upon their system are too well known to require that we should dwell upon them; but we may be permitted to add the testimony of what came under our own inspection, to the great mass of information which has already transpired on this subject. During the three days that we stayed at Fort Wayne, we saw two Indians tomahawked. The first case happened the night of our arrival; this man was very severely cut in the head by some unknown person. It was supposed that it was by one of the French engagés . At the time this occurred, they were all concerned in a drunken frolic. The next day, on visiting the Fort, we met at the gate a few Indians, one of whom was in a state of intoxication; and we were informed by a boy, that he had threatened to shoot his wife. A few moments after, while we were engaged in conversation with the Indian Agent, word was brought to him, that the Indian had drawn his knife and severely wounded her in the forehead. It appeared the only provocation she had given him, was in attempting to draw him away from the town, and induce him to return to his village. In both these cases the loss of blood was very considerable, and such that it was believed none but Indians could have survived it; but they are so inured to pain and privations of every kind, that it cannot be doubted that they recover from wounds which to other men would prove fatal. The excellent surgical assistance which they receive in all cases of wounds and bruises, may also be considered as one of the causes which tend to restore them to health. These assaults are, however, so common 0138 126 here, that no one appears surprised at them; they are considered as an every day occurrence. Generally an Indian will, after he has recovered from his drunken frolic, express great regret for the fatal effects which have attended it. This is peculiarly the case where he is at a distance from the white population, and where intoxication has not become with him an habitual or daily vice; otherwise the frequent repetition of these bloody frays renders him callous to their consequences. As an instance, we were told, that some time since, when the Baptist Missionary Society were allowed to occupy Fort Wayne as one of their stations, an Indian brought to the fort the corpse of his brother, and asked the Rev. Mr. M'Coy, who superintended the establishment, to provide for the funeral. On inquiry, Mr. M'Coy found that the deceased had been murdered a short time before, by the very Indian who had brought him in. When questioned as to the cause of his brother's death, the murderer carelessly raised the clothing from the breast of the deceased, and exhibited five or six wounds which he had inflicted with a knife, nor could any emotion of compunction be observed in his unyielding countenance. These evils may all be traced to the unfortunate circumstance, that the prohibition to sell spirituous liquors to the Indians only extends to their territory. If congress were to include in this prohibition all lands belonging to the United States, the evil could be partly, if not wholly, remedied. The inducement to smuggle liquor and sell it clandestinely, might be sufficiently great to prevent the mischief from being completely removed, but it would certainly render it rare. Perhaps, also, if the agents were required to pay them their annuities on the Indian reservation, and at a time when an opportunity would he given them of laying out their money in the purchase 0139 127 of cattle, implements of agriculture, and other useful or innocent articles, while the introduction of spirituous liquors would be closely guarded against, the great evil of intoxication would be rendered still more rare. Whatever measures congress may choose to adopt to civilize the Indians, it is not difficult to foresee that they will ever prove unsuccessful, unless a check be immediately put to the sale of ardent liquors among them. The law that prohibits the sale of it upon their territory having proved insufficient, a more general system of restriction must be adopted.

Experience has likewise proved, that the term sale was not sufficiently comprehensive. The giving of spirits ought to be subjected to the same regulation; for it has been observed on the Missouri, as well as on the Mississippi, and probably every where throughout the Indian country, that if prohibited from selling it, the traders will give it to the Indians as an inducement to trade with them, taking care that the price of the liquor be included in that of the tobacco or other article sold to them at the time.

All Indians concur in considering intoxication as improper, and as the source of every evil. Among crimes, those that are held to be most atrocious, are murder, theft, and the violation of the advice and directions of their parents. Many, however, are said to be “foolish,” and not sensible of crime. Rape is considered as visited by the anger of the Great Spirit, and is never practised but upon females in a state of intoxication. In the treatment of their wives, they are often severe and brutal; if they should prove lazy, or be deemed so by their unrelenting husbands, or if careless of their children, they are not unfrequently beaten with clubs. Among women no crime is considered so flagrant as infidelity to their husbands; this is punished with blows, and sometimes by cutting off the nose, or other mutilations. 0140 128 Seldom do the Potawatomis punish it by death, and it is very rare that they vent their resentment against the paramour. The barbarous punishment noticed by Mr. Say in the account of the manners of the 0tos, 0mawhaws, and other Missouri Indians, which he described under the name of the Round in the Prairie, ( tour de la prairie of the Canadians,) is not known among the Potawatomis.

The Indians are liable to more distempers than might at first be expected from their mode of living. Croup is one of their most common diseases; in some seasons, most of the eases are fatal, while in others all the patients recover. No medicine is applied in this disease, except the maple sap, or sugar dissolved in hot water. Adults find relief from vomiting. Sore throat appears, also, to be one of their most frequent complaints; especially in the morning, but it soon passes off. They are often bitten by rattlesnakes; the wound is cured among the Potawatomis by poultices of the Seneca snake-root, draughts of violet tea, and Eupatorium perfoliatum; they have other remedies, which they keep secret; the venom of the snake is considered greater at some periods of the moon than at others; in the month of August it is most so. These Indians entertain a high degree of veneration for the rattlesnake, not that they consider it in the light of a spirit, as has frequently but incorrectly been asserted, but because they are grateful to it for the timely warning which it has often given them, of the approach of an enemy. They therefore seldom kill it, unless when a young man fancies that he requires a rattle, in which case he will have no hesitation in killing a snake; which act he, however, always accompanies by certain forms. He introduces it by many apologies to the animal, informing it that he wants the rattle as an ornament for his person, and by no means to make fun of it, and in testimony 0141 129 of his amity to the species, leaves a piece of tobacco near the carcase. The fang of the snake is held to be a charm against rheumatism and other internal pains; the mode of applying it consists in scratching the affected part until it bleeds. In their rude midwifery, they use the rattle to assist in parturition; it is then administered internally; it is not, however, used as an emmenagogue. Leprosy is known among them, and has been observed under some of its most horrible features. In a case, known to Dr. Hall, the patient required some one to be constantly scraping his body and limbs with a knife. A double handful Of furfuraceous matter was daily discharged; he died in the course of six months; his feet had turned as black as gun-powder.

Fevers are common among the Potawatomis, and are either bilious, intermittent, remittent or continued; they afflict most those who follow the game to the interior of the country; white those who reside along the shores of the lake enjoy much better health. The Indians observe that the easterly winds are the most wholesome, the southerly produce dullness and laziness, the north wind is too cold, and that from the west is very uncomfortable, Hæpatitis is not common; when it occurs, it is relieved by repeated vomiting until the bile is completely evacuated; if the bile be not discharged, the white of the eye turns yellow, and continues so until death ensues. Hydrocephalus and dropsy are, it seems, unknown to them. Small Pox is frequent, but is always introduced by white men; it does not, however, commit any great depredation; at one time it raged among them, and proved disastrous and incurable. Its evil effects were suspended by the introduction of the practice of inoculation and vaccination, which Little Turtle made known to them. Having never known the small 17 0142 130 pox to be violent but once, they have not entertained that opinion, of its return at periodical times, which is said to he held by other nations. Dr. Hall's offer to vaccinate them was accepted by many and declined by others. Metea told us that vaccination had only been abandoned for want of the virus, he expressed a great wish to obtain some, and said if he had it, he would use his influence to disseminate it.

Syphilis was, according to Metea, known to the Indians in its mildest form prior to the arrival of white men among them. It is considered as having increased in virulence and frequency, since the promiscuous intercourse of white men and squaws which is not interrupted, according to the uniform practice of Indians, during the period of the catamenia. When the disease is in its mild state, they cure it very readily by timely application to their medicine men; the principal remedies are decoctions of the red root and the prairie willow root, as also of sassafras. In such cases they drink very plentiful. These remedies are not applied to the disease in its worst forms: we heard that they had remedies which, even in these cases, were considered as certain, but of which we could not ascertain the nature. In all such diseases, they apply to their regular doctors, who are said to charge very extravagant fees. These men combine the use of spells with that of herbs, and are held in very great esteem. Their materia medica consists of astringents, cathartics, emetics, mucilages, and sudorifics. Among the emetics most in use, we heard of pills made from the product of the evaporation of a decoction of the horse-chestnut boiled down to a viscous state. One of their sudoritics is said to consist in the application of a poultice of maize, boiled as for food, which is Spread over the body of the sick person, who is first extended on a board or skin. The maize used in 0143 131 this application is afterwards used as food. The berry of the prickly ash is used by them as a warming medicine for inward complaints. They have no vesicatories but fire and hot water, which are applied for sore joints and rheumatism. Phlebotomy is performed with a small knife or with a thin lamina of flint attached to a stick in the manner of a fleam, and Stuck in the flesh in the same way. For a pain in the head they bleed in the bend of the arm, or above it; for one in the side below the bend; and if the pain be in the back they bleed on the right or left ankle according as it inclines to the right or left side. Bleeding is never resorted to in fevers.

Calculous symptoms are accurately described, but the disease and its causes are unknown to them. The process of parturition is generally easy, the woman being on her knees; it is sometimes assisted by bending the body over a cord, the ends of which are attached to the top of the cabin; the funis is regularly tied and cut. The operation of turning is unknown; no manual assistance is resorted to, even in eases of wrong presentation; and many instances have occurred in which the fœtus became putrid Before it was expelled. They have professed midwives, who are paid for their attendance; these are principally old women. Men are never allowed to assist at the delivery of a woman. A general opinion has prevailed that all Indian women barBed in cold water immediately after parturition. This is however extremely incorrect; the practice exists among the Sioux or Dacotas, and among many other nations, but we very much question whether any nation of Algonquin origin practises it. The Potawatomi women are very careful not to expose themselves to cold after child-birth, and do not bathe for ten days unless the weather be very warm. The placenta not being always expelled naturally, they 0144 132 have recourse to a strong medicinal draught; it is stated, that if it should remain for several days, the husband takes his wife upon his shoulders, and carries her about for some time; the motion is said to assist in its expulsion. Mothers always nurse their children, and continue to suckle them for a great length of time, in some instances for three, four, or more years, if no subsequent pregnancy occur; in one case a mother was observed suckling a child twelve years of age. When the mother's milk fails, the child is fed with an extract of sweet maize in boiling water, and medicines are administered to renew the secretion. Metea had never heard of a total failure of a woman's milk while nursing her child; during a temporary interruption of it they sometimes commit children to the care of a friend, who acts as a nurse; but this practice is disapproved of. Parturition is seldom fatal: when it proves so, it is attributed to ignorance or carelessness on the part of the midwife; in women of indolent habit it is said to be painful, in the active it is much less laborious. Sterility is very common, but does not expose women to contempt, though it is frequently the cause of their being east off by their husbands. The period of gestation varies from eight to nine months, and is seldom attended with sickness or nausea. Menstruation commonly commences at the age of fourteen, and continues until fifty, and in some cases sixty years; it is not uncommon to see a woman with gray hair, whose catamenia has not ceased. Many women become disabled from child-bearing by accidents during their first gestation, although still very young. Menstruation is often irregular with them; when too abundant, they have remedies which are represented as very successful, but which Metea declined indicating, as it was not usual for them to talk of these things except when 0145 133 called upon professionally, and with a fee. In a suppression of menses they seldom apply any remedy; as they are apprehensive that this might be productive of sterility, which is by all Indian women considered as the greatest curse that can be entailed upon them. During the period of the catamenia, women are not allowed to associate with the rest of the nation; they are completely laid aside, and are not permitted to touch any article of furniture or food which men have occasion to use. If the Indians be stationary at the time, the women are placed outside of the camp; if on a march, they are not allowed to follow the trail, but must take a different path and keep at a distance from the main body. This practice, which appears to prevail wherever man retains his primitive simplicity and purity of manners, has been very unphilosophically considered by Adair and other theoretic writers as a strong confirmation of the descent of the aborigines of America from the ten lost tribes of Israel. But as Charlevoix observes, “one must have good eyes, or rather a very lively imagination to perceive in them all that some travellers have pretended to discover.” * The late Mr. Samuel Prince, of Boston, who resided three or four years in 0whyhee, assured Mr. Colhoun that the natives of that island are equally scrupulous with regard to the catamenia, and during its continuance; the women being secluded in houses without the villages. This custom of 0whyhee has not, we think, been noticed by any traveller that we have met with.

* Charlevoix's Journal Historique, Letter 23d.

It has been often asserted that it was a common practice with Indian women to destroy the fœtus. This may be correct as respects certain nations, but it ought 0146 134 by no means to he considered as applicable to all; and we know it to be incorrect as respects the Potawatomis. All travellers concur in representing them as very proud of the number of their children. Where the mild and humane provisions of the Christian faith do not prevail, children form almost the only link which binds man to woman for life. It is the only obstacle to that constant repudiation of wives which occurred previous to the Christian dispensation; hence, independent of the moral turpitude of the deed, it would be the height of impolicy in a woman to impair the strongest claim which she has upon her husband's affections; besides these considerations, the Potawatomi woman is prevented from attempting infanticide from the fear which she entertains that abortion would be followed by the death of the parent.

Askabunkese, one of the most celebrated physicians among the Potawatomis, being asked whether chlorosis was known to them, said that he did not know it; the women were too modest to inform the men, and would knock him down with a stick if he were to inquire of them.

Among the Potawatomi, the practice of medicine is considered quite distinct from that of jugglery. Both are in great repute, but it appears that there is no interference. The man of medicine has, it is true, recourse to spells and incantations to add to the virtue of the plants which he uses; but this is totally unconnected with the avocations of the sorcerer and juggler, whose object is amusement, and who are resorted to for the recovery of lost articles, or to answer questions about persons and things at a distance, for which they sometimes get pay from the more ignorant, but they are soon detected in their clumsy arts. The sorcerers are treated with much respect, being held in great awe; they generally perform their tricks in the twilight, or during 0147 135 the night. Prophets formerly existed in great number, and were much revered; but the failure which attended the predictions made by the great prophet of the Shawanese, the brother of Tecumseh, has opened their eyes on this subject, and satisfied them that he, as well perhaps as the others who had enjoyed reputation among them, was merely a tool in the hands of a designing chief, to deceive the Indians into measures which he wished to effect.

The Potawatomis have a number of war songs, formed for the most part of one or two ideas, expressed in short and forcible sentences, which they repeat over and over, in a low humming kind of tune, which to our ears appeared very monotonous; they have no love songs, the business of singing being always connected with warlike avocations. We took down the words of one of their songs as follows:—

Y[???]-w[???]-kw[???] t[???]-m[???]-n[???] m[???]-ch[???]-m[???]-k[???]-m[???]n. What do I hear behind me? the Americans n[???]-t[???]-t[???]-w[???]-n[???]-k[???] p[???]-t[???]-k[???]-w[???], are entering Our village, prepare yourselves to fight . K[???]-n[???]-m[???]-t[???]-s[???] w[???]-t[???]-s[???] n[???]-p[???]-w[???]n. We must die. Victory or death .

The translation of two others is annexed, with a view to give an idea of the purport of their songs. “When I march against mine enemies, the earth trembles under my feet;” this is sung with considerable force by a warrior; the others joining in chorus, to the words y[???], w[???], often repeated, and concluded with a general whoop.

Another, which is very short, consists merely in the repetition petition of the words, “The head of the enemy is cut off, and falls at my feet;” with the exclamation ha-ha-ha, frequently repeated.

Singing is always attended by the dance, and if possible, 0148 136 by intoxication, in which case it becomes incoherent and unintelligible. The only musical instruments which they use, are the drum, rattle, and a kind of flagelet. They have various kinds of dances known by the name of the war dance, medicine dance, Manito or spirit dance, wabano, metawee, mewicine, and beggar's dance. Their games are numerous and diversified; they resemble many of those known to civilized men; such as gymnastic exercises, battledore, pitching the bar, ball, &c. tennis and cup-ball, for which they use the spur of the deer with a string attached to it. They are fond of games of chance, particularly cards, which they have received from traders, &c.

The Potawatomis are for rile most part well proportioned, about five feet eight inches in height, possessed of much muscular strength in the arm, but rather weak in the back, with a strong neck, endowed with considerable agility. Their voice is feeble and low, but when excited very shrill; their teeth are sound and clean, but not remarkable for regularity. In persons of feeble habits, or of a scrophulous tendency, the teeth are found to decay much faster than in others. Dentition is said to be a painful process among indian children, a circumstance which we had not expected. Their complexion is very much darkened by exposure to the sun and wind, while those parts which are kept covered, are observed to retain their native brightness. Children are red when new-born, after a few years they assume the yellow colour. Their sight is quick and penetrating, but blindness is frequent from the intense application of the eye in still hunting, and from exposure to the alternate, and, in some cases, united action of the sun and snow; doubtless also on account of the constant smoke in their huts. Their hearing is usually good when young; 0149 137 but is often affected in old age, probably by the effect of cold, or the usually disordered state Of their stomach. Their olfactory nerves are said to be inferior in acuteness to those of the white man; which is singular, considering the extent of the sense of smelling among wild animals. We should have believed that man in his primitive state would be possessed of a more acute sense of smelling than when civilized; the facts stated on this subject of the Caraibs being able to trace men through the woods by the scent, like hounds, and of their distinguishing “the track of an Englishman or a negro, from that of a Frenchman or a Spaniard, by the sense of smelling,” if true, would be strong confirmation of this doctrine. * It is said that the Arabs cannot bear the smell of a city.

* Archæologia Americana, vol. I. p. 426.

Their endurance of cold is great. Their powers of digestion are strong, but exposed to severe trials. The quantity of food which an Indian will take when he has it in abundance is surprising, and if considered in connection with what is related by Captain Parry of the appetite of the Esquimaux, would lead us to believe that this not peculiar to any nation of Indians, but that it belongs to man in general in his wild state. We find that it extends also to the half-breeds who live among them. The observations made at a later period of the expedition, upon the quantity of buffaloe meat consumed by every man of the party, confirm this. The usual allowance of fresh buffaloe meat to the guides and boatmen of the fur trading companies is not less than eight pounds per day; it is probable, that during the Short time the party were among the buffaloe, the ration of each of the gentlemen averaged about four pounds. This is not to be attributed to any want of nutritive power in the flesh 18 0150 138 of the buffaloe, but to the great facility that attends the digestion of this food, and to the irregular habits which even the most civilized men readily acquire as soon as they find themselves beyond the pale of society. Certain it is, that if well provided with food, and not engaged in hunting, the Potawatomi will eat from ten to twenty times a day. Frequent exposure to privation of food has, however, accustomed him to endure the want of it with more fortitude, and perhaps with less real inconvenience, than the white man. There is also probably a moral support which the red man receives from the recollection, that however frequent, and however long have been the intervals during which he was deprived of all subsistence, they have always terminated in time to secure him from absolute famine; he therefore always retains the hope of being soon restored to abundance. The white man, less accustomed to these privations, considers himself as lost the very first time that he misses his usual allowance, and is deprived of the great accession of physical strength which proceeds from moral courage. Notwithstanding their great fortitude, the men or this nation are sometimes liable to unaccountable depression of spirits, which seldom, however, leads them to commit suicide; we heard of two instances only, one of which was in a fit of intoxication, and the other to get rid of a scolding wife.

This account of the Potawatomis might have been lengthened out by adding many circumstances which were related to us concerning their manners and opinions; but having given the most important, we shall withhold noticing the remainder, except in a few instances, when treating of other Indian tribes; in which case they may assist in a comparison between the different nations.

CHAPTER IV.

Carey mission-house. Lake Michigan. Chicago .

THE only person worthy of note, whom the party met at Fort Wayne, besides those already alluded to, was Captain Riley, the same gentleman who has amused the world by an account of his sufferings in Africa. He has formed a settlement on St. Mary river, fourteen miles above Fort Wayne, which he has called Willshire, in honour of the British consul who redeemed him from captivity. The spot which he has selected is said to be the only one that affords a water-power within fifty miles of Fort Wayne; from which circumstance it will probably increase in importance. The party made arrangements to cross the wilderness, of upwards of two hundred miles, which separates this place from Chicago; they fortunately met here the express sent from the latter place for letters, and detained him as a guide. His name was Bemis, and we have great pleasure in stating, that of all the United States' soldiers who, at various times, accompanied the expedition in the capacity of escort or guide, none behaved himself so much to their satisfaction as this man. On the 29th of May, the party left Fort Wayne, the cavalcade consisted of seven persons, including the soldier, and a black servant, called Andrew Allison; there were in addition two horses loaded with provisions. The first day the party travelled but twenty miles, and encamped on the bank of a small stream known by the name of Blue-grass; this is the last of the tributaries to the Mississippi which are met with in Indiana; all the streams which we crossed during the ensuing five or 0152 140 six days empty their waters into Lake Michigan. The country to the west of Fort Wayne is much more promising than that which lies east of it. Though web and in some places swampy, it is much less so than that through which we had previously travelled. The soil is thin, but of good quality; prairies are occasionally met with; the forests consist of white oak, shellbark, aspen, &c. The weather, which was cloudy in the morning and showery in the afternoon, cleared off towards sunset, and our first night's exposure was attended with no evil consequences. The meadow on which we halted, was covered with a fine tame grass, which afforded us a soft couch, while it secured to our horses plentiful and palatable food. The streams we crossed this day were inconsiderable; the first known by the name of Eel river, is one of the head branches of the Wabash: it was considerably swollen at that time; we forded it with some difficulty, and met on the west bank a party of traders, who had been encamped there sometime with a large quantity of furs, which they dared not trust across the stream in its present state of elevation. They were nearly destitute of provisions, and we supplied them with one day's rations. A ride of thirty miles took us the next day to a fine river called the Elkheart, which it had been our intention to have forded before night; upon reaching its banks we found it so much swollen as to preclude the possibility of crossing it, unless a raft could be made; but as this would have detained us too long, we prefered attempting to make our way down the left bank of the stream. We were led to take this course from the circumstance, that the usual path crosses back to the left or southern bank, about twenty miles below the first crossing. The country travelled over this day, consisted of low fiat ridges, the summits of which presented extensive levels 0153 141 interspersed with many small lakes and lagoons. These ridges are not more than ten or fifteen feet in height, their sides are so steep as to make them sometimes difficult of ascent for horses. The country is almost destitute of timber until within a few miles of the Elkheart, when we entered the river bottom, in which we found a noble forest of oak, black and white walnut, wild cherry, beech, poplar, ash, bass or linden, white and sugar maple, &c. the soil upon which it grows appearing to be of the very best quality, but somewhat wet. Among the plants observed upon the prairie land, Mr. Say noticed a lupin with blue flowers, in full bloom and in great abundance; a fine cypripedium, and the wild flax, which grew in great plenty. Some of the small lakes or ponds are surrounded exclusively with a thick growth of white cedars, none of which are seen elsewhere, or intermixed with any of the forest trees on the more elevated ground. One of the most curious characters of the prairie, was the number of conical depressions in the earth, resembling the sink holes in the neighbourhood of St. Louis; they are from eight to tenor more feet in depth, and from twenty to thirty in diameter. They remind the geologist of the numerous funnel-formed holes which are observable in gypsum formations, and particularly in the muriatiferous gypsum of the vicinity of Bex in Switzerland, Moutiers in Savoy, &c. No rocks appear in situ any where along these prairies, but they are covered with granitic boulders, bearing evident marks of attrition. The soil is likewise thickly studded with water-worn pebbles, and is therefore far inferior in quality to that over which we passed the preceding day. The grass of these prairies is generally short and dry.

One of the greatest inconveniences we encountered at this stage of our journey, and which was felt still more 0154 142 sensibly when travelling on the prairies west of the Mississippi, was the great range of the thermometer. We noticed this day, that at sunrise it stood at 38°, (of Fahrenheit's scale,) while at noon it had risen to 72°. So great a variation of temperature is productive of very heavy dews, to which we were frequently exposed, as we often neglected pitching our tents at night. In rising in the morning we found our clothes as wet as if they had been drenched in water. Whether the usual elevation of these prairies prevents the dew from being attended with the sickliness which generally prevails in the vicinity of rivers, or whether the life, to which men are exposed in crossing the prairies, protects them against the noxious influence of the dew, we know not; but it is remarkable that none of the party suffered from it. In no instance were any of us affected with either cold or rheumatismal pains; and if in one or two cases symptoms of fever prevailed, it was at a time when we had left the prairies.

A few Potawatomi Indians were tact this day on their way to Fort Wayne. The trail which we followed was struck by that which leads to one of their villages about fifteen miles distant. The weather was hazy throughout the day; in the evening light clouds were observed. A gentle breeze from the north-west prevailed during the day. Our horses had been fastened, to prevent their rambling in the woods; meeting with but a scanty supply of grass in the neighbourhood of the river which was overgrown with bushes, and which offered them no other food but the bark of trees, many of them broke the bark ligaments with which they were secured, and strayed to a considerable distance from the camp; these ligaments are called in the language of the travellers to the west “hobbles.” The pursuit after the horses in the morning occasioned a great loss of time, 0155 143 which was however increased on discovering that the black boy(Andrew) had not returned with them; he having unfortunately lost his way in the woods. Our search after him having proved vain, we wrote directions for him to pursue our track, affixed them to a tree, and were on the point of leaving the camp, when fortunately he made his appearance. It is probable, as we afterwards found out, that he would have perished in the woods had he not come in just at that moment; for it would have been impossible for him to have traced the party in the thick forest through which our course led us: neither would it have been prudent for us to have remained any longer there, as our horses gave evident signs of their having been on short allowance since noon of the preceding day. Andrew's return to the camp enabled us then to attend to what appeared to be the most important object, which was to seek for a place where the horses might pasture to advantage. We therefore resolved upon following as short a course as we could to the prairie land, endeavouring at the same time to keep near enough to the river to reach the second crossing before night. In this attempt we met with great difficulties, from the closeness of the forest and the swampy nature of the ground. The horses laboured much to get through, and when we stopped at noon to pasture them on a small patch of grass, we found that our progress during four hours had been but about six miles. We had met with a bold and hitherto undescribed stream, about twenty yards wide, which empties into the Elkheart about three miles below the usual crossing, and which we have designated in our map as the south-west branch of that river. From the rapidity and depth of this branch we anticipated the same difficulties which we had encountered the evening before, but on continuing along the bank, for some 0156 144 time, we observed a large tree that had fallen across, and that afforded a safe and commodious bridge for ourselves, and baggage, while our horses swam over. The afternoon of that day was consumed in passing through swamps, in which our horses were frequently in danger of being lost. At one place three of the homes with their riders, were near being severely hurt, by the fruitless efforts of the former to get over a bad hole. We were happy to get through without any mere serious injury than that of being smeared with dirt from head to foot, and with the loss merely of a few spurs that stuck to the bottom of the pool. After one of the most trying days that any of us ever recollected having undergone, we encamped, at sunset, in a place so low that we could scarcely get a spot dry enough to spread our blankets; and before we had partaken of our evening meal, the mosquitoes arose in such numbers around us, that we were deprived of all rest for the night. We had likewise the mortification of finding that our horses were almost as badly off for grass ibis evening as the last; the distance travelled this day did not exceed twenty miles. Our course had been entirely directed by the compass, and was nearly west. An Indian trail which we observed in a direction north 40° west, was followed for a while, with the hope that it would take us to an Indian village, but it only lead us back to the Elkheart, which we found as deep and as rapid as at our last encampment. We observed here the remains of a frail canoe which, for a moment, we thought might assist us in crossing the river; but the weakness of this little vessel, soon convinced us of the impossibility of trusting to it; it was made of the bark of the linden or elm, procured by cutting through to the wood transversely, first at the foot of the, tree, and then again about twelve feet above this. A 0157 145 longitudinal cut, uniting these two, allowed the bark to be shelled off in a single piece. It had then been reversed so that he inner surface, while on the tree; formed the outside of the boat; the whole was finished by causing the middle part to bulge out, by means of sticks placed athwart, while each end was pressed in, and rendered water-tight. This path having misled us, we retraced our steps until we ascended a bank, about, twenty, five feet high, which runs parallel with the river, and we continued along the edge of this through thick woods of elm, prickly ash, red haw, spice wood, papaw in flower, &c. Our situation during the night was a very uncomfortable one, and little calculated to please those of the party, who were, for the first time, engaged on an exploring expedition. To be placed in the midst of a dense forest, surrounded by bogs, from which our horses had been extricated with great difficulty, uncertain as to the possibility of reaching by this route the spot at which we wished to arrive, tormented by insects, our horses faint for want of food, and all this at the commencement of our journey through the woods was rather a discouraging situation. Anxious to escape from these difficulties, we resumed our journey on Sunday, the 1st of June, at as early art hour as we could, and were engaged for about five hours, in difficulties still greater than those of the preceding day. The thickness of the forest having obliged us to dismount, and lead our horses, we waded knee deep in the mire, and met a new obstacle in the necessity of king frequent halts, to replace on the horses the baggage which was thrown off during the many leaps which they had to take over the fallen trees. After a while we reached a high and dry prairie, partly covered with young aspen bushes, rising to the height of from eight to ten feet, and so thick that it was almost impossible to keep the whole of 19 0158 146 the party in sight; this reminded Major Long of some of the difficulties he had experienced in travelling through the cane brakes of Arkansaw. On halting at noon, we discovered the Elkheart at no great distance, and from the account of our guides, concluded that we had got through our difficulties. To the younger travellers it was a source of much gratification, to find that the fatigues of that morning had exceeded all that their more experienced companions had ever met with, as it was to them a sure warrant that they had not overrated their forces in undertaking the journey. At our noontime's encampment, we found the angelica plant, and the wild pea-vine. We soon struck a trail, and about three miles below, came to the lower crossing of the river; it was still so high that it would have been impossible to pass; but we experienced great pleasure in ascertaining that we had again fallen into the usual track from Wayne to Chicago; we observed here, for the first time, the equisetum growing in abundance. In the afternoon we travelled with case and comfort over a prairie country interspersed with occasional spots of woodland. One of these prairies which was about five miles wide and one and a half long, was as level as possible, and as far as the eye could observe, it resembled a Smooth unruffled sheet of water. The scene was enlivened, and the solitude interrupted by the quick flight of the deer which we disturbed while feeding, and which darted across our path With a rapidity that baffles description. About sunset we arrived at a romantic stream called Devil's river, and here we encamped upon as beautiful a spot as the most fastidious could have wished for; we pitched our tent for the first time, and while partaking of a comfortable meal, in the open air, spent a more pleasant evening than perhaps we could ever have expected to enjoy in such a solitude. There was a still sublimity in the scene, 0159 147 which we have in vain looked for on many an occasion. The dreariness of our last encampment contrasted so strongly with the calmness of the present, that it powerfully reminded us of that constant mutability in the situation of man, which perhaps finds its parallel only in the unceasing changes which his ideas and his feelings undergo.

The next day we proceeded along southern bank of the Elkheart and observed its junction With the St, Joseph. This last mentioned stream is known by the appellation of St. Joseph of Lake Michigan , in contradistinction to the river of the same name which empties into Lake Erie, and which we saw at Fort Wayne. The St. Joseph of Michigan is a fine Stream, deeply incased; it is about one hundred yards wide, and being at that time very full, was both deep and rapid; it is the finest stream we have met with since we left the Muskingum, and perhaps even the Ohio. A beautiful prairie with a fine rich soil, offered to the party an easy mode of travelling, and the occasional glimpses which they caught of the St. Joseph and its adjoining forests, afforded them a series of varied but ever beautiful which Were rendered more picturesque by the ruins of Strawberry, Rum, and St. Joseph's villages, formerly the residence of Indians or of the first French settlers. It was curious to trace the difference in the remains of the habitations of the red and white man in the midst of this distant solitude. While the untenanted cabin of the Indian presented in its neighbourhood but the remains of an old cornfield overgrown with weeds, the rude hut of the Frenchman the remains of his former gardening exertions; The asparagus, the pea-vine, and the Woodbine, still grow about it, as though in defiance of the revolutions which have dispersed those who planted them here. The very names of the villages 0160 148 mark the difference between their former tenants those of the Indians were designated by the name of the fruit which grew abundantly on the spot, or of the object which they coveted most; while the French missionary has placed his village under the patronage of the tutelar saint in whom he reposed his utmost confidence. Near to these we found two traders settled in the vicinity of Indian lands, or as is believed by many, upon the reservation, itself; where they probably carry on a lucrative trade, if, as we were informed by one of them, a skin valued at one dollar was obtained for five gunflints, which had cost him a cent a piece. This is, however, the least evil; our objections to this trade would he much lighter, if the Indians were liable only to be defrauded of their dues; but great as is this injustice, it bears no comparison to the evils growing out of the constant temptation of liquor to which they are exposed, and which as is too well known it is impossible for them to resist. It is really shocking to observe the manner in which, notwithstanding the laws of the land, the dictates of sound reason, and morality, and the active efforts of the United States' agents, the traders persist in their practice of offering liquor to the Indians, the effect of which is to demoralize and to destroy them.

There is in this neighbourhood an establishment which, by the philanthopic views that have led to its establishment and by the boundless charity with which it is administered, compensates in a manner for the insult offered to the laws of God and man by the traders. The reports which we had received of the flattering success which had attended the efforts of the Baptist missionaries on the St. Joseph, induced us to deviate a little from our route to visit their interesting establishment. The Carey mission-house so designated in honour of the late Mr. Carey, the 0161 149 indefatigable apostle of India, is situated within about a mile of the river, and twenty-five miles, (by land,) above its mouth. The ground upon which it is erected is the site of an ancient and extensive Potawatomi village, now no longer in existence. The establishment was created by the Baptist Missionary Society in Washington, and is under the superintendance of the Rev. Mr. M'Coy, a man whom from all the reports we heard of him we should consider as very eminently qualified for the important trust committed to him. We regretted that at the time we passed at the Carey mission-house, this gentleman was absent on business connected with the establishment of another missionary settlement on the grand river of Michigan; but we saw his wife, who received us in a very hospitable manner, and gave us every opportunity of becoming acquainted with the circumstances of the school. The spot upon which the houses are built and the agricultural pursuits carried on, was covered with a very dense forest seven before the time when we visited it, but by the great activity of the superintendant, he has succeeded in the course of this Short dine in building six good log Houses, four of which are connected and afford a comfortable residence to the inmates of the establishment, a fifth is used as a school-room) and the sixth forms a commodious blacksmith's shop. In addition to this, they have cleared about fifty acres of land, which are nearly all enclosed by a substantial fence; forty acres have already been ploughed and planted with maize, and every step has been taken to place the establishment upon an independant footing. The school consists of from forty to sixty children, of which fifteen are females. They are either children of Indians, or half-breed descendants of French and Indian parents; there being about an equal number of each. It is contemplated that the 0162 150 school will soon be increased to one hundred. The plan adopted appears to be a very judicious one; to instruct them in the arts of civilized life, to teach them the benefits which they may derive from them, without attempting to confuse their heads by ideas of religion, the value of which it is in their present state, impossible for them to appreciate. It is only after they shall have been familiarized with the blessings attendant upon civilization, that they may be induced to turn, with effect, their attention to the sublime principles of that dispensation to which we are indebted for all those comforts. To attempt to christianize them before they have been civilized, would be to expect of them a maturity of reasoning far beyond that of which experience teaches us that they are possessed. In his present state of wildness and ignorance, it is impossible for the Indian to appreciate the vast difference which exists between his heathen superstitions, and the pure morality of the gospel. Could we entertain a doubt of what must strike every reflecting man as true, we need but open the books of the Catholic missionaries whose zeal first induced them to visit the trackless wastes of America, to ascend her as yet unknown rivers, and to risk every hazard and surmount every obstacle, conveying the glad tidings of the gospel and baptising in the name of the Lord. What say they of their success, they were heard with patient attention, for such is the practice of the Indian, but what root did their words strike in the minds of their pupils? Father Hennepin, one of the most celebrated of these missionaries, has accounted for their ill success in the true way. “There are,” says he, “several obstacles to the conversion of the Indians, but in most cases the chief difficulty arises from the indifference which they manifest for every thing. If we instruct them in the creation of the world, and in the mysteries of the 0163 151 christian religion, they say that we are right, and they generally applaud what we tell them. They would hold it to be a great breach of manners to intimate the least doubt as to the truth of all that we teach them, but having heard and praised all that we had to say, they pretend that we ought to show the same deference for the tales which they relate to us, and when we tell them that all they have advanced is false, their reply is, that as they have acquiesced in all that we have stated, it is foolish on our part to interrupt them and deny the truth of what they assert.” “All that thou hast taught us, say they, respecting the belief of thy country is doubtless true as respects thy people, but it is otherwise with us who belong to a different nation, and who dwell upon lands which are on this side of the great lake.” It is this indifference in all matters of faith, this belief that their doctrines were as good as those of the missionaries that may be considered as the true source of the failure of all attempts to christianize them. But after their ideas will have been expanded by a proper acquaintance with the arts of civilized life, then they cannot not fail fully to appreciate the superiority of our faith over theirs.

The plan adopted in the school, purposes to unite a practical with an intellectual education; the boys are instructed in the English language, in reading, writing and arithmetic, they are made to attend to the usual occupations of a farm, and to perform every operation connected with it; such as ploughing, planting, harrowing, &c.; in these pursuits they appear to take great delight, the system being well regulated, they find time for every thing, not only for Study and labour, but also for innocent recreation, in which they are encouraged to indulge; and the hours allotted to recreation may perhaps be viewed as productive 0164 152 of results fully as important as those accruing from more serious pursuits. In visiting Indian villages, we observed, that the children seldom played together in the manner in which those of white men unite for recreation. The pursuits of the Indian boy are of a solitary nature, he imitates the chace, practises shooting at a mark in order to acquire a sure aim, prepares his arrows, &c. but seldom appears to enjoy that community of pleasures, from which a taste for society would necessarily spring. By inducing the boys of the Mission-house to play together, they will soon discover how many of the comforts and pleasures of life arise from the communion of souls; and they will be led to form attachments which will attend them through life, and which may induce them, after they have left the peaceful abode of the missionary, to continue in the course which has already been to them the fruitful source of so much delight The females receive in the school the same instruction which is given to the boys, and are in addition to this, taught spinning, weaving, and sewing, both plain and ornamental; they were just beginning to embroider, an occupation which may, by some, be considered as unsuitable to the situation which they are destined to hold in life, but which appears to us very judiciously used as a reward and stimulus; it encourages their taste and natural talent for imitation, which is very great; and by teaching them that occupation may be connected with amusement, it may prevent their relapsing into that idleness, which has been justly termed the source of all evils. They are likewise made to attend to the pursuits of the dairy, such as the milking of cows, churning of milk, &c. The establishment is intended to be opened for children from seven to fourteen years old, but they very properly receive them at a much earlier age, and even where a great desire of 0165 153 learning was manifested, older persons have been admitted. All appear to be very happy, and to make as rapid a progress as White children of the same age would make; their principal excellence rests in works of imitation; they write astonishingly well, and many display great natural talent for drawing. The institution receives the countenance of the most respectable among the Indians; there are in the school two of the grandchildren of T[???]-p[???]-n[???]-b[???], the great hereditary chief of the Potawatomis, which has his residence upon this river. The Indians visit the establishment occasionally, appear pleased with it, and show their favour to it by presents of sugar, venison, &c. which they often make to the family of the missionary. Some of the parents of the half-breed scholars pay for their children's board, and contribute in this manner to the support of the establishment; which, being sanctioned by the War Department, receives annually one thousand dollars from the United States, for the support of a teacher and blacksmith, according to the conditions of the treaty concluded at Chicago in 1821, by Governor Cass and Mr. Sibley, commissioners on the part of the United States. By this treaty about four or five millions of acres of land were relinquished by the Potawatomis. It was one of the conditions of the purchase, that a small tract of the Indian reservation should be conveyed in fee simple to the Baptist missionaries, for the purpose of forming a school and agricultural establishment; It is said that the Indians themselves selected this spot as being the site of their old village; this must have been very populous, as the remains of corn-hills, which are very distinctly visible at this time, are said to extend over a thousand acres. The village was finally abandoned about fifty years ago, but there are a few of the oldest of the nation who still recollect the site of their respective huts; they 20 0166 154 are said frequently to visit the establishment, and to trace with deep feeling a spot which is endeared to them by “the memory of past joys, pleasing and mournful to the soul.”

The Carey Mission-house has been very liberally supported by the charitable contributions raised throughout the western states. The family have a flock of one hundred sheep, collected in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio, and are daily expecting two hundred head of cattle from the same states. These contributions, together with the produce of their farm, will, it is thought, prevent them from being exposed to suffer as much from scarcity of provisions as they have already done. When we visited them, they were on short allowance, owing to the loss of a load of wheat which had been sent from Fort Wayne in a wagon a short time before we left that place, and which had been embarked in pirogues at the upper crossing of the Elkheart; by the accidental upsetting of the pirogues the whole of the cargo was lost.

We were told that the family had been deprived of the use of milk, during the whole winter, from the circumstance of their cows feeding upon a kind of wild onion which grows in the prairies. It may be well to state that, notwithstanding the great objection which the Indians generally have to the use of milk, the children in the school have become quite fond of it. In order to give a greater extension to their establishment, they contemplate engaging Shane as an interpreter and assistant; from what we saw of this man while at Fort Wayne, we were not led to form so high an opinion of him as we had entertained from reports received on St. Mary's river.

No rock appears in place near the establishment; and we met with none on our way from Devil's river, except in one place where we observed, in a ravine, a calcareous formation 0167 155 evidently of the latest date, and which probably still continues to increase; it was filled with vegetables, some of which were unaltered, while others appeared to have undergone a partial decomposition.

Having engaged an Indian to lead us back from Mr. M'Coy's to the Chicago trace, we resumed our journey on the 3d of June. Our guide's hoary head would have satisfied even Humboldt himself, that his assertion “that the hair of Indians never becomes gray,” was too general. * We have met with many instances, and the circumstance is so natural that we should not have mentioned it, but for the importance attached to the slightest observation of a traveller so accurate as Humboldt generally is. After travelling about ten miles through a prairie we parted from our guide, who considered himself amply rewarded with about half a pound of gunpowder. We then entered upon what is termed the fourteen mile prairie, which for the first seven miles presented an extensive plain uninterrupted by the least elevation, and undiversified by the prospect of a single tree. We had occasion to observe, on a former occasion, that the route which we travelled carried us along the height of land that separates the waters tributary to the Mississippi from those which empty into the lakes; and we had an opportunity of seeing this confirmed, in this place, by the fact that a communication between those waters has been effected, during wet seasons, through the fourteen mile prairie. It appears that a very deep Swamp, which we avoided by our visit to the mission station, establishes a connection between two streams one of which empties its waters into the Kankakee, while those of the other run to the St, Joseph. This has afforded, and still continues to afford every year an easy communication

* Polit. Ess. on the Kingd. of New Spain, (Lond. 1811,) vol. i. p. 150.

0168 156 for canoes and small boats. An intercourse has likewise existed, in wet seasons, across the prairie east of the trader's establishment which we passed on the previous day. At noon we rested our horses in the vicinity of the remains of an Indian village, named the Grand Quoit, and we observed a few Indian lodges scattered along the edge of the forest which encloses this prairie. On discovering our party on the prairie, the tenants of the lodges immediately rode out of the woods, advanced towards us, and opened a conversation with our guides. Their intercourse with white men, and the consequent departure from their original customs, were observable in the circumstance of their commencing the conversation, and in their minute inquries respecting our object and intentions in visiting the country. They arc said to experience a great scarcity of food, which we can readily believe from the total absence of any kind of game which we have observed upon the route. An Indian who rode up near us, while we were partaking of our dinner, stopped and appeared to long after food; but called for none. We offered him some, which he very thankfully accepted, and seemed to eat with great voraciousness.

Our party was this day overtaken by an express from Wayne, who brought letters to Major Long, one of which was from Dr. James, stating that he had been waiting in Pittsburg for the party. From the contents of his letter, we concluded that the hopes, which had been hitherto entertained, of his being able to effect a junction with us, were vain. These were the last letters, received from our friends, until we found some on our return at the Sault de St. Marie.

At about forty-three miles from the Carey station the trail which we followed struck the shores of Lake Michigan; this was a source of great gratification to us; as the 0169 157 last twelve miles of our road had been very dangerous on account of the numerous deep holes formed in it; these may be added the many superficial roots that projected from the beech trees, in every direction, and that exposed the horses to frequent stumbling. The forest was almost exclusively composed of the finest growth of beech; on some of the higher grounds we found, in great plenty, the partridge or fox-berry, (Gaultheria procumbens,) with its aromatic red fruit, in a state of perfect maturity; it was accompanied by the whortleberry in full blossom. We saw this day the first white pine, and in Some places this tree was very abundant We had been following for some time the valley of a small stream, called by the French, Riviere du Chemin , (Trail river,) but on approaching near to its mouth, our path winded to the south, and we found ourselves at the base of a sand-hill of about twenty feet in height; the fog which arose behind it, and the coolness of the air warned us of our approach to the lake, and on turning along the base of the hill we discovered ourselves to be, on the beach of Lake Michigan. The scenery changes here most suddenly; instead of the low, level and uniformly green prairies, through which we had been travelling for sometime past, or of the beech swamp which had offered us such difficulties during the last four hours of our ride, we found ourselves transported, as it were, to the shores of an ocean. We were near to the southern extremity of the lake; the view, towards the north, was boundless; the eye meeting nothing but the vast expanse of water which spread like an ocean, its surface at that time as calm and unruffled as though it were a sheet of ice. Towards the south, the prospect was limited to a few hundred yards, being suddenly cut off by a range of low sand-hills, which arose to a height varying from twenty to forty feet, in some instances rising perhaps to upwards of one 0170 158 hundred feet. When we first approached the lake, it was covered with a mist, which soon vanished and the bright sun, reflected upon the sand and water, produced a glare of light quite fatiguing to the eye. Our progress was in a southwestwardly direction, along the beach, which reminded us of that of the Atlantic on the coast of New Jersey. The sand-hills are undulating and crowned at their summits with a scrubby growth of white pine and furze; while the brow, which faces the lake, is quite bare. In the rear of the hills, but invisible from the beach, spreads a level country supporting a scattering growth of white pine, oak, beech, hophorn-beam, (Ostrya virginica,) &c. East and west of us, a continuous narrow beach curved gradually towards the north and, bounded by the lake and the hills, was all that the eye could observe. At our evening's encampment of the 4th of June, we were at the southernmost extremity of the lake, and could distinctly observe that its south-eastern corner is the arc of a greater circle than the south-western. The beach is strewed with fragments of rocks, evidently primitive, and probably derived from the decomposition of the same masses which, by their destruction, have given rise to the immense deposite of sand and pebbles that forms the bottom of the lake. These fragments, which are all rolled; vary much in size; the largest we observed weighed perhaps twenty or thirty tons. They consist of granite, mica and clay-slates, hornblende, &c. The hills appear to have been produced by the constant accumulation of sand, blown from the beach, by the strong north-westerly winds which prevail during the winter season; the sand is loose and uncemented. In a few places traces of lignite and peat are to be met with; doubtless resulting from the decomposition of the partial vegetation which grew upon these hills, and which was successively destroyed and buried under 0171 159 the sand, perhaps also from such of the drift wood which is often carried ashore by the waves.

The lake appears to abound in fish, judging from the quantity that we saw gliding along the surface of the water; upon the beach there were many that lay dead, and that in some places rendered the air quite fetid. These belonged chiefly to the pike, the salmon-trout &c. We cannot learn that there is any great variety in the fish found in this lake. The streams passed this day, during our ride along the beach, were inconsiderable; the first is termed the Riviere des Bois , probably from the quantity of drift wood observed near it; the English appellation for it is Stick river; the second, which we met, was the Big Calamick, (K[???]-n[???]-m[???]-k[???]nk of the Indians,) where the party dispersed, during the evening, each to attend to his own avocations. Major Long and Mr. Colhoun commenced observations for latitude, which they found difficult to complete on account of the fog which spread over the lake. Hunting and fishing parties were sent out, but which returned without having met with any success.

The colour of the streams which we passed in diseased their origin in a swami; and the great excess of water in this fen during some seasons, together with the loose nature of the sandy bar which divides it from the lake, causes it frequently to force the dam, and open to itself a new passage into the lake; there are near to this place two streams, one of which, named Pine river was opened last year; the other, termed New river, was formed a short time before. We crossed both these streams as well as the little Calamick, and finding that the travelling, on the beach had become very uncomfortable, owing to a heavy fog, and a strong lake wind which announced an approaching storm, we crossed the sand hills, and travelled on the prairie; in this 0172 160 manner we were well sheltered from the wind. Our path led us over the scene of the bloody massacre perpetrated in 1812, when the garrison of Chicago was entirely destroyed by the Indians, (principally Potawatomis,) after they had abandoned the fort and in violation of the pledge given to them by the Indians. No traces are now to be seen of the massacre; the bones, which are said to have remained for a long while bleaching upon the prairie, were at last gathered up and buried by order of Captain Bradley, who had the command of the new fort built on the ruins of the old one; but no one could point out to us the spot where they had been deposited. While resting at noon, on the bank of New river, we observed how difficult it is to judge correctly of objects on the prairie and, at the same time, how great is the similarity between the prairie wolf and, the dogs owned by the Indians. While seated at dinner, we were told that one of the soldiers had discovered a wolf and was about to fire upon it. The whole party saw the animal and remained convinced that it was a wolf, until one of the men observed an Indian hut in the distance, and suggested that it might be a dog belonging to the tenant of the hut, which information induced the soldier to desist from shooting; a few moments afterwards an Indian made his appearance on the prairie and called the animal to him. This Indian was remarkable for the length of his beard, which, contrary to their usual custom, he had allowed to grow to the length of one inch and a half; his dress was indicative of the same slovenly disposition. We were obliged to commit to his charge one of the horses; this was the only one that had travelled the whole distance from Philadelphia; but he had become unable to proceed, having been affected for some time past with the distemper; and, notwithstanding all the care that was taken of him, he had 0173 161 become impossible faint that, even without any load, we found it impossible to make him keep up with the rest of the horses. The Indian undertook to take care of him for a few days, and then lead him to the fort, which promise he faithfully discharged.

In the afternoon of the fifth of June, we reached Fort Dearborn, (Chicago,) leaving been engaged eight days in travelling a distance of two hundred and sixteen miles, making an average of twenty-seven miles per day. Our estimate of the distance exceeds the usual allowance by sixteen miles, on account of the circuitous route which we took to avoid crossing the Elkheart. At Fort Dearborn we stopped for a few days, with a view to examine the country and make further preparations for the journey to the Mississippi.

In taking a retrospective view of the nature of the country travelled over, we find that from Fort Wayne to twenty unless west of Devil river, it presents as it were two distinct surfaces. The first, or lower one, is a level moist prairie covered with luxuriant herbage the second, or upper one, is abruptly elevated twenty-five or thirty feet above the prairie land, and consists of a succession of flat ridges; uniform in height, but of unequal breadth, that are frequently disconnected by narrow straits of prairie land; from this circumstance the lower level presents a continuous surface, while the upper one is broken into distinct, ridges insulated in the midst of the prairie. The soil of the ridges is poor and gravelly, covered with a thin growth of scrubby oaks; it appears to have been occasioned by what has been termed an ancient alluvial formation, (probably similar to those extensive deposites which are Said to constitute the great plains that are observed in South America;) this formation having been afterwards divided by valleys 21 0174 162 of a still later origin, has produced a lower level that is filled with a newer alluvion probably resulting from the action of causes which still continue to operate to this day; as we had an opportunity of remarking in the prairie east of the trading house which we visited previously to our arrival at the Carey station. To these ridges succeeds a broken country consisting of insulated hills of a soil still inferior, but having more trees; among the oaks, that grow here, we observed for the first time the hickory interspersed.

Fort Dearborn is situated in the State of Illinois, on the south bank, and near to the mouth of Chicago river; the boundary line between this state and that of Indiana strikes the western Shore of Lake Michigan ten miles north of its southernmost extremity, and then continues along the shore of the lake until it reaches the forty-second and a half degree of north latitude, along which it extends to the Mississippi. The post at Chicago was abandoned a few months after the party visited it. Its establishment had been found necessary to intimidate the hostile and still very powerful tribes of Indians that inhabit this part of the country; but the rapid extension of the white population to the west, the establishment along the Mississippi of a chain of military posts which encloses them, and at the same time convinces them of the vigilance of the government, and of the inevitable destruction which they would bring upon themselves by the most trifling act of hostility on their part, have, it is thought, rendered the continuance of a military force at this place unnecessary. An Indian agent remains there, in order to keep up amicable relations with them, and to attend to their wants, which are daily becoming greater, owing to the increasing scarcity of game in the country.

We were much disappointed at the appearance of Chicago 0175 163 and its vicinity. We found in it nothing to justify the great eulogium lavished upon this place by a late traveller, who observes that “it is the most fertile and beautiful that can be imagined.” “As a farming country,” says he, “it unites the fertile soil of the prairies with an elevation which exempts it from the influence of stagnant waters, and a summer climate of delightful serenity.” * The best comment upon this description of the climate and soil is the fact that, with the most active vigilance on the part of the officers, it was impossible for the garrison, consisting of from seventy to ninety men to subsist themselves upon the grain raised in the country, although much of their time was devoted to agricultural pursuits. The difficulties which the agriculturist meets with here are numerous; they arise from the shallowness of the soil, from its humidity, and from its exposure to the cold and damp winds which blow from the lake with great force during most part of the year; the grain is frequently destroyed by swarms of insects; there are also a number of destructive birds of which it was impossible for the garrison to avoid the baneful influence, except by keeping, as was practised constantly engaged at shooting at the crows and blackbirds that depredated upon the corn planted by them. But, even with all these exertions, the maize seldom has time to ripen, owing to the shortness and coldness of the season. The provisions for the garrison were for the most part conveyed from Mackinaw in a schooner, and sometimes they were brought from St. Louis, a distance of three hundred and eighty-six miles up the Illinois and Des Plaines rivers.

* Schoolcraft's Narrative Journal of Travels, (Albany, 1830,) page 384.

The appearance of the country near Chicago offers but few features upon which the of the traveller can dwell 0176 164 with pleasure. There is too much uniformity in the scenery; the extensive water prospect is a waste uncheckered by islands, unenlivened by the spreading canvass, and the fatiguing monotony of which is increased by the equally undiversified prospect of the land scenery, which affords no relief to the sight, as it consists merely of a plain in which but few patches of thin and scrubby woods are observed scattered here and there.

The village presents no cheering prospect, as, notwithstanding its antiquity, it consists of but few huts, inhabited by a miserable race of men, scarcely equal to the Indians from whom they are descended. Their log or bark houses are low, filthy and disgusting, displaying not the least trace of comfort. Chicago is perhaps one of the oldest settlements in the Indian country; its name, derived from the Potawatomi language, signifies either a skunk, or a wild onion; and either of these significations has been occasionally given for it. A fort is said to have formerly existed there. Mention is made of the place as having been visited in 1671 by Perot, who found “Chicagou” to be the residence of a powerful chief of the Miamis. The number of trails centring all at this spot, and their apparent antiquity, indicate that this was probably for a long while the site of a large Indian village. As a place of business, it offers no inducement to the settler; for the whole annual amount of the trade on the lake did not exceed the cargo of five or six schooners even at the time when the garrison received its supplies from Mackinaw. It is not impossible that at some distant day, when the banks of the Illinois shall have been covered with a dense population, and when the low prairies which extend between that river and Fort Wayne, shall have acquired a population proportionate to the produce which they can yield, that Chicago may become one of the points in 0177 165 the direct line of communication between the northern lakes and the Mississippi; must even the intercourse which will be carried on through this communication, will we think at all times be a limited one; the dangers attending the navigation of the lake, and the scarcity of harbours along the shore, must ever prove a serious obstacle to the increase of the commercial importance, of Chicago. The extent of the sand banks which are formed on the eastern and southern shore, by the prevailing north and northwesterly winds, will likewise prevent any important works from being undertaken to improve the post of Chicago.

The south fork of Chicago river takes its rise, about six miles from the fort, in a swamp Which communicates also with the Des Plaines, one of the head branches of the Illinois. Having been informed that this route was frequently travelled by traders, and that it had been used by one of the officers of the garrison, who returned with provisions from St. Louis a few days before our arrival at the fort, we determined to ascend the Chicago river in order to observe this interesting division of waters. We accordingly left the fort on the 7th of June, in a boat which, after having ascended the river about four miles, we exchanged for a narrow pirogue that drew less water; the stream we were ascending was very narrow, rapid, and crooked, presenting a great fall; it continued so for about three miles, when we reached a sort of swamp designated by the Canadian voyagers under the name of le petit lac . Our course through this swamp, which extended for three miles, was very much impeded by the high grass, weeds, &c. through which our pirogue passed With difficulty. Observing that our progress through the fen was very slow, and the day being considerably advanced, we landed on the north bank, and continued our course along the 0178 166 edge of the swamp for about three miles, until we reached the place where the old portage road meets the current, which was here very distinct towards the south. We were delighted at beholding for the first time, a feature so interesting in itself, but which we had afterwards an opportunity of observing frequently on the route; viz. the division of waters starting from the same source, and running in two different directions, so as to become the feeders of streams that discharge themselves into the ocean at immense distances apart. Although at the time we visited it, there was scarcely water enough to permit our pirogue to pass, we could not doubt, that in the spring of the year the route must be a very eligible one. Lieut. Hopson, who accompanied us to the Des Plaines, told us that he had travelled it with case, in a boat loaded With lead and flour. The distance from the fort to the intersection of the Portage road and Des Plaines, is supposed to be about twelve or thirteen miles; the elevation of the feeding lake above Chicago river was estimated at five or six feet; and, it is probable that the descent to the Des Plaines is less considerable. The Portage road is about eleven miles long; the usual distance travelled by land seldom however exceeds from four to nine miles; in very dry seasons it has been said to amount to thirty miles, as the portage then extends to Mount Juliet, near the confluence of the Kankakee. When we consider the facts above stated, we are irresistably led to the conclusion, that an elevation of the lakes of a few feet, (not exceeding ten or twelve,) above their present level, would cause them to discharge their waters, partly at least, into the Gulf of Mexico; that such a discharge has at one time existed, every one conversant with the nature of the country must admit; and it is equally apparent that an expenditure, trifling in comparison to the importance of the 0179 167 object, would again render Lake Michigan a tributary of the Mexican gulf. Impressed with the importance of this object, the legislature of Illinois has already cause some observations to be made upon the possibility of establishing this communication; the commissioners appointed to that effect, visited Chicago after we left it, and we know not what results they obtained, as their report has not reached us; but we have been informed that they had considered the elevation of the petit lac above Chicago: to be somewhat greater than we had estimated it. It is the opinion of those best acquainted with the nature of the country, that the easiest communication would be between the Little Calamick and some point of the Des Plaines, probably below the Portage road; between these two points there is in wet seasons, we understand, a water communication of ten or twelve miles. Of the practicability of the work, and of the sufficiency of a supply of water no doubt can exist. The only difficulty will, we apprehend, be keeping the communication open after it is once made, as the soil is swampy, and probably will require particular care to oppose the return of the soft mud into the excavations.

In the immediate vicinity of Chicago, a secondary limestone is found, disposed in horizontal strata; it contains many organic remains. This limestone appears to us to be very similar in its geological as well as mineralogical aspect, to that observed above the coal formation on the Miami; but no superposition being visible, it is impossible for us to determine at present its relative age; we however incline to the opinion, that it is one of the late Secondary limestones. We have to regret that the specimens which were obtained of the same have been lost, and that we are deprived of the opportunity of comparing them with those collected in other parts of our route. This limestone, which 0180 168 lies exposed to view in some places, is for the most part covered with an alluvial deposite consisting of the detritus of primitive rocks. Upon the shore of Lake Michigan, specimens of native copper have likewise been occasionally picked up. We have in our possession, owing to the liberality of Dr. Hall, a specimen which is part of a mass, weighing two pounds, found by the express from Chicago to Greenbay; it was picked up, on the lake shore, about five miles south of the Milwacke, a stream which empties into the lake about eighty-five miles north of Chicago; the spot at which it was found is known by the name of the Soapbanks, and is stated by Mr. Schoolcraft to consist of abed of white clay; Dr. Hall was led to visit the spot in hopes of finding more copper, but met with none. We have dwelt upon this fact merely from the great importance which has been attached to every locality of native copper, by those who are induced to believe that, where a specimen exists, a mine ought to be looked for. In reading the relations of travellers on the subject we become satisfied of the incorrectness of this conclusion; wherever the copper has been found, it has always been in detached masses, generally of a small weight, and appearing evidently out of place. We must not therefore expect to find veins in their vicinity; if the existence of copper in the west deserves all that importance which it has received, a circumstance which we very much question in the present state of the country, it is not upon the study of the localities of these fragments of native copper that we are to waste our time and means. The main object must be to ascertain whence they came; and this can only be determined by an examination of the nature of the valleys, of the extent and abundance of the alluvial deposite in which they are found, and of the original primitive formations, 0181 169 from the partial destruction of which these extensive deposites of alluvion, and the large boulders which accompany them, have received their origin. But these are considerations which we shall not broach at present, as they will find their place, more naturally, at a later period of this work.

Although the quantity of game in this part of the country for the support of the Indians, still there is enough, and particularly of the Smaller kind, to offer occupation to the amateur sportsman. There are many different kinds of aquatic birds, which feed upon the wild rice, (Zizania aquatics,) and other plants that thrive in the swamps which cover the country. Mr. Say observed, among others, the mallard, (Anas boschas,) shoveller-duck, (A. clypeata,) blue-winged teal, (A. discors,) common merganser, (Mergus serrator,) common coot, (Fulica americana,) stellate heron or Indian hen, (Ardea minor,) &c. &c. In the lake there is also a great quantity of fish, (Coregonus albus, Lesueur,) which is the greatest delicacy found in the lakes is not caught at Chicago, but sometimes twenty or thirty miles north of it.

Observations, for latitude and longitude, were made here, by Mr. Colhoun, from which the situation of this place was found to he in latitude 41° 59′ 53″ N.—longitude 86° 47′ 15″ W.—Magnetic variation 6° 12′ East. *

* See Appendix II. The longitude cannot be depended upon with certainty, as there was some doubt as to the error of the watch.

During our short residence at Chicago, we were, by the favour of Dr. Wolcott, the Indian agent, furnished with much information concerning the Indians of this vicinity, through his interpreter, Alexander Robinson, a half-breed 22 0182 170 Chippewa; who informed us that the Indians who frequent this part of the country are very much intermixed, belonging principally to the Potawatomis, Ottawas, and Chippewas, ([???][???]-ch[???][???]-p[???][???]-w[???][???]g, * ) from which circumstance a great admixture of the three languages prevails here. The vicinity of the Miamis has also, in his opinion, tended to adulterate the language of the Potawatomis in the neighbourhood of Fort Wayne; and it is believed that this language is spoken in the greatest purity, only along the hanks of the St. Joseph of Lake Michigan. Robinson did not suppose the Potawatomis to exceed two thousand five hundred souls; but it is probable that their number must be greater; especially as they are united with the Kickapoos, whose population amounts to six hundred in the State of Illinois. According to his observations, the Potawatomis believe that they came from the vicinity of the Sault de St. Marie, where they presume that they were created. A singular belief, which they entertain, is, that the souls of the departed have, on their way to the great prairie, to cross a large stream, over which a log is placed as a bridge; but that this is in such constant agitation, that none but the spirits of good men can pass over it in safety, while those of the bad slip from the log into the water and are never after heard of. This information they pretend to have had revealed to them by one of their ancestors who, being dead, travelled to the edge of the stream, but not liking

* We have in the course of this work conformed with the general usage in the spelling of this word, dropping the final y used by many authors; but from the above method of spelling it, according to its pronunciation, it will he readily observed that the usual orthography can give no idea of the true Indian pronunciation of this word. The final letter ought to be pronounced in a manner intermediate between the g and k .

0183 171 to venture on the log, determined to return to the land of the living, which purpose effected, having been seen once more among his friends, two days after his reputed death. He informed them of what he had observed, and further told them that while on the verge of the stream, he had heard the sounds of the drum, at the beat of which the blessed were dancing on the opposite prairie. This story they firmly believe.

With a view to collect as much information as possible on the subject of Indian antiquities, we inquired of Robinson whether any traditions, on this subject, were current among the Indians. He observed, that their ancient fortifications were a frequent subject of conversation; and especially those in the nature of excavations made in the ground. He had heard of one, made by the Kickapoos and Fox Indians, on the Sangamo river, a stream running into the Illinois. This fortification is distinguished by the name of [???][???]th[???][???]t[???][???][???][???]k. It is known to have served as an intrenchment to the Kickapoos and Foxes, who were met there and defeated by the Potawatomis, the Ottowas, and the Chippewas. No date was assigned to this transaction. We understood that the Etnataek was near the Kickapoo village on the Sangamo.

The hunting grounds of the Potawatomis appear to be bounded on the north by the St. Joseph, (which on the east side of Lake Michigan separates them from the Ottowas,) and the Milwacke, which, on the west side of the lake divides them from the Menomones. They spread to the south along the Illinois river about two hundred miles to the west their grounds extend as far as Rock river, and the Mequin or Spoon river of the Illinois; to the east they probably seldom pass beyond the Wabash.

CHAPTER V.

Rock river. Menomones. Geology of the country west of Lake Michigan. Prairie du Chien. Sauks and Foxes .

HAVING spent a few days in Chicago, the party left that post on Wednesday, June 11th. By the instructions received from the War Department, Major Long had the option of striking the Mississippi at Fort Armstrong, or at Dubuque's lead mines, and then ascending that river to Prairie du Chien. It appeared to him, however, that if the direct route to Prairie du Chien, across the prairies, was practicable, it would save several days; but upon inquiry no person could be found who had ever travelled through, in that direction; and although from the description of the country, the route was supposed to be very practicable, yet from the impossibility of procuring a guide, it would have been relinquished, had not an old French engage, by the name of Le Sellier, undertaken to direct the party. This man, who had lived for upwards of thirty years with the Indians, had taken a wife among the Winnebagoes, and settled on the head waters of Rock river; knowing the country as far as that stream, he presumed that he could find his way thence to Fort Crawford, situated on the Mississippi near the junction of the Wisconsan. Under his guidance the party proceeded on the first day of their journey, in a general direction nearly west, for about seventeen miles. The first stream passed, on that day, was the Chicago river, which we crossed about half a mile above the fort, and immediately above the first fork, (or Gary's river); the 0185 173 party next came to the River des Plaines, which is one of the head branches of the Illinois; it receives its name from a variety of maple, which by the Canadians is named Plained . In Potawatomi the river is termed Sh[???]-sh[???]k-m[???]-[???]-sh[???]-k[???] S[???]-p[???], (which signifies flumen arboris quæ mingit .) This appelation is derived from the great quantity of sap which flows from this tree in the spring. We crossed the Des Plaines about four miles above the Portage road; it was forty yards wide, and so deep that part of our baggage was wet while fording it, but fortunately none materially injured. The length of the Des Plaines from this ford to its source is about fifteen miles, that to its confluence with the Kankakee about forty miles.

We encamped on the east bank of a small stream, about eight yards wide, designated by the Indians under the name of [???]-t[???]-k[???]-k[???][???]-n[???]g, which means the uncovered breast . The voyagers call it De Page's river, from a Frenchman of that name, who died and was buried on the banks of this stream. The De Page enters the Des Plaines about half a mile above its junction with the Kankakee. From Chicago to the place where we forded the Des Plaines, the country presents a low, flat, and swampy prairie, very thickly covered with high grass, aquatic plants, and among others with the wild rice. The latter occurs principally in the places which are still under water; its blades floating on the surface of the fluid like those of the young domestic plant. The whole of this tract of country is overflowed during the spring, and canoes pass in every direction across the prairie. Near the fording of the Des Plaines there is a Potawatomi village, some of the inhabitants of which came to converse with us, while we were encamped at noon, during a thunder storm. The birds we saw to-day consisted of prairie hens or grous, (Tetrao cupido) reed-birds, 0186 174 (Emberiza oryziyora, Wilson,) sand-hill cranes, (Grus canadensis,) curlews, &c. Many badger holes were observed; we saw at the garrison one of these animals, that had been raised in the fort, and whose playful, inoffensive manners, had made him a general favourite.

A ride of about eighteen miles brought us to the banks of Fox river, which is a fine stream about one hundred and thirty yards wide, the scenery of which is varied by several islands scattered through its channel. The country, which consisted of prairie land, became handsomely wooded in the neighbourhood of the river; a couple of Indian lodges, seen in the distance, gave an appearance of inhabitance to the spot. These we found to belong to the M[???][???]-n[???]-m[???][???]-n[???][???], or wild rice eaters, a nation that appears to be fast decreasing in numbers; The reports concerning the Menomone nation are so various, and we observed so few of them on the route, that we had not an opportunity of forming an opinion upon the disputed point of their Algonquin origin. It is said that few if any white men have ever been able to learn their language; and we have been assured by the late Indian Agent at Greenbay, (Major John Biddle,) that he had found it difficult to obtain an interpreter capable of conversing with them in their own language. A considerable intercourse has, however, existed between them and white men; but it is said to be principally in the Algonquin languages, the prevailing medium of intercourse being the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi languages, or as in most cases a mixture of these three dialects. The few Menomones whom we met with were of a light colour, resembling much that of the light mulattoes in our Atlantic states, probably nearer the colour of individuals resulting from an admixture of five-eighths European with threeeighths of African blood. It is said that this light colour 0187 175 which distinguishes the Menomones from other Indians, result from a general admixture of European blood. But we have been assured, that even when of pure Indian extraction, they are of a lighter colour than their neighbours, and are therefore often called the White Indians. Whether they be descendants of the Algonquins, or of a different race of men, is a question of much importance, and which perhaps may yet be resolved by those, whose opportunities of obtaining information, on that subject, are greater than ours were. If they be sprung from a different race of men, it may still be questioned whether they settled here, previously or subsequently to the Algonquin tribes. Charlevoix says that they were not populous in his time. “This is to be regretted,” he adds, “for they are very fine men, and the bes shaped of all Canada; they are even taller than the Pouteouatamis. I am assured that they have the same origin and nearly the same language as the Noquets and Saulteurs, (Leapers;) * but they add, that they have also a particular language, which they keep to themselves .” † The Menomones at present reside principally on the west shore of Lake Michigan north of the Milwacke, in the vicinity of Greenbay, and on the head waters of Fox river, (of Greenbays) of Menomone river, &c. Their personal appearance is very favourable, and indicative of more neatness, and of a greater. taste for ornament, than that of any other of our north western Indians. Their mode of preparing belts, garters, sheaths for knives, moccasins, &c. and of ornamenting them with beads, and with the coloured quills of porcupines, evinces much taste, and this of the best kind. It does not appear that with them the mere combination of many gaudy colours constitutes beauty, but this is made to

* Chippewas.

† Journal Historique, Letter 19th.

0188 176 depend more upon the proper union of the three colours, white, red, and blue united, to form symmetric and varied designs.

The Fox river, which we crossed, must not be mistaken for the same which runs north-eastwardly into Greenbay of Lake Michigan. Its course is in a different direction, being nearly south-west; it falls into the Illinois about fifteen or twenty miles below the confluence of the Des Plaines and Kankakee.

The Fox river of the Illinois is called by the Indians Pish-t[???][???]-k[???][???]. It is the same which is mentioned by Charlevoix under the name of Pisticoui, and which flows, as he says, through the country of the Mascoutins. At present it is claimed, at least in this part, by the Potawatomis and Kickapoos, who are incorporated together; the Menomones are allowed to remain there, on account of their being connected by intermarriages. The river has a fine gravelly bottom, and was very easily forded. On the west side we reached a beautiful but small prairie, situated on a high bank, which approaches within two hundred and fifty yards of the edge of the water; and upon this prairie we discovered a number of mounds, which appeared to have been arranged with a certain degree of regularity. Of these mounds we counted twenty-seven; they vary from one to four feet and a half in height, and from fifteen to twenty-five in length; their breadth is not proportional to their length, as it seldom exceeds from six to eight feet. They are placed at unequal distances, which average about twenty yards; they are chiefly upon the brow of the hill, but some of them stand at a greater distance back. Their form appears to have been originally oval; and the slight depression in the ground, observed sometimes on both sides of a mound, seems to indicate, that it has been raised by 0189 177 means of the earth collected in its immediate vicinity. We remained ignorant of the causes which may have given rise to their construction, or of the circumstances under which they were executed. Of their artificial nature, no doubt could be entertained. They may probably have been ancient dirt lodges, similar to the ruins observed by Mr. Say, during the expedition to the Rocky mountains, and which were known to be the remains of lodges that had existed within the memory of some of the Indians then living. It does not appear that the Indians, who reside near the Fox river, have any recollection or tradition on this subject. Our guide informed us, that they believed, upon the authority of the missionaries, that these mounds were of antediluvian origin, and probably erected as places of retreat for their families in time of war.

Proceeding two miles further, through a thinly wooded country, we crossed a brook four yards wide; and six miles further of fine rolling, prairie, interspersed with light woods, brought us to our encampment of the 12th of June. As we stopped upon the encamping ground, a night-hawk flew away and abandoned two eggs, which she appeared to have deposited on the ground, without preparing any kind of nest; they were of a dull white colour, thickly spotted over with dirty brown blotches. A heavy shower, accompanied by thunder and lightning, made the weather very comfortable. But a high wind, which arose during the night, rendered travelling very unpleasant in the morning. At about twenty-eight miles in a general westerly course from the Pishtako, we came to a beautiful winding stream, called the K[???]sh-w[???][???]-k[???], (Cottonwood.) It is about twelve yards wide, and is a tributary of Rock river. About one and a half mile below the place where we forded this stream, we saw a small Indian village 23 0190 178 designated by the name of W[???]-k[???][???]s[???], (little bend,) from its situation at one of the bends of the Kishwake. It consisted of four lodges, the population of which was computed to amount to at least sixty persons, as there were many crowded into one lodge; the village is chiefly inhabited by Menomones, with a few Potawatomis who have intermarried with them. We stopped at the lodge of the chief, whose name is K[???][???]-k[???][???]-k[???][???]-sh[???][???], (Crow.) He, together with many of his people, was engaged in his corn-fields; on seeing the strangers, they gave the dog-whoop, and collected at the house at which we had stopped. They were all tall and muscular men, well built, and better looking than the Potawatomis generally are; their countenance was agreeable, and denoted none of that severity about the mouth which Volney ascribes to those whom he saw. The chief is a very old man and quite bald; at the time he approached us he had a child-board on his back, in which he carried his little grandson. Although advanced in years, Kakakesha had none of the decrepitude of old age; there was much dignity in his manner. The women were all very ugly, and the children looked like little imps, in whose countenance, and apparently deformed bodies, we could scarcely discover the embryo of men as tall and elegant as those who stood before us. Most of their youth had gone out on a hunting excursion. The men whom we saw were almost naked, having no other garment than the breech-cloth, but as we drew near them they gathered up their blankets; the women had a sort of short-gown and a blanket; the children ran about naked, with no other appendage than a belt round their loins. It is curious to observe that all Indians, whether old or young, wear a belt, even when they have nothing to attach to it; and the children, who seldom assume the breech-cloth until they attain 0191 179 the age of puberty, have all a belt tied round them, as soon as they can run about. The house, which we visited, was about twenty feet long by fifteen wide, and full twelve feet high at its centre. Seen from a distance, it resembled a log-house; but on approaching we discovered it to be formed of bark, secured to a frame made of poles, and covered with the (same material. It had the appearance of being very comfortable. The fire was made in the middle of the house; two sides of the interior were occupied with a frame, three feet high and four or five feet wide, which was covered with blankets, skins, &c. and on these the inmates sleep and eat; upon these we were invited to sit down. There is no sign of partition, or of any thing that can serve as a skreen to separate or divide one part of the family from another. A woman who was sick, lay in the lodge exposed to view, until the child, which was taken from the chief's back, and which was her's, was handed over, naked to her. Whether from this circumstance, or to avoid the curious glances of some of our party, who appeared to be watching the sick woman's motions, we know not, but a blanket was soon suspended in order to conceal the patient from view.

The disposition of these Indians was friendly. The object of the expedition was explained to them, to which they made no reply, but the chief directed his squaw, who was a very fleshy woman, to give us some maple sugar in return for the tobacco we had presented him; he expressed his regret at having no fresh meat to give us; but added, that if his hunters returned that evening with meat, he would send some to our camp. We were a little shocked at their familiar disposition, which wear first mistook for intentional impudence; they all collected round us, took our guns, and began to examine them with care, appeared 0192 180 to be highly pleased with the double-barrelled guns of some of the gentlemen of our party; one of them even drew Mr. Say's hunting knife from the sheath, and after having examined it, returned it; he then took Mr. Say's hat, which was a white beaver one, and after having also examined this with care, tried it on his own head. All this, however, appeared to proceed rather from childish curiosity than from any intention to give offence. After some time, they began to beg for bacon, which soon compelled us to leave them.

In order to avoid all further importunity, we travelled ten miles before night, and encamped on a fine piece of level ground, which was watered by a small stream that discharged itself three miles below into the Kishwake. The thermometer was observed, at six o'clock, P. M. to be at eighty-two degrees in the shade, but no inconvenience was felt from the heat, owing to a fine westerly breeze which prevailed during the day.

On the 14th of July, the party reached Rock river, which is the most important tributary of the Mississippi, between the Illinois and the Wisconsan. Rock river is termed, in the languages derived from the Algonquin, S[???]n-s[???]-p[???], and in the Winnebago, W[???]-r[???]-sh[???]-n[???]-gr[???], both which names have the same signification as the English term. It forms the division between the hunting grounds claimed by the Potawatomis, on the eastern side, and those of the Sauks, Foxes, and Winnebagoes on the west. At the place where we crossed the river, it was about one hundred and twenty yards wide; and its depth was such that it could not be forded at that time, though we were informed that it is customary for horses loaded with furs, to cross it without difficulty. We were ferried over in a small canoe, sent for us from an Indian 0193 181 village in the vicinity. We crossed Rock river just above the mouth of the Kishwake, the same stream which we had passed the day previous, but which, from its great increase, we scarcely recognised, when we saw it three miles above its mouth, where we were again obliged to cross it. Opposite to the mouth of the Kishwake there is a large island in Rock river. At the lower crossing of the Kishwake, we passed through an Indian village, designated by the name of the river, and which is inhabited by a mixed race of Potawatomis, Chippewas, Ottawas, Menomones, &c. The chief, who belongs to the first of these nations, was away at the time we were there, and in his absence we saw no person who could converse with us. A lad, who was in the village, and who, as we were told, was the son of the late chief, when spoken to, made no answer, but seemed to be very stupid; although the other Indians did not appear destitute of intelligence, yet not one of them could converse with us. This indeed is one of the characteristics of Indians. The business of receiving and replying to speeches belongs to the chief, is one of his proudest prerogatives, and it is one in which he chiefly endeavours to excel; while the other Indians, seeming to consider it as no concern of theirs, pay no attention to it, and are always at a loss, when spoken to by those whom they are accustomed to treat with respect or with regard; but with the traders, whom they ridicule, and for whom they openly profess the most manifest contempt, they will join in conversation very freely and familiarly. After having crossed Rock river, we stopped to dine on the high bank which confines it on the west side, and were not a little amused at the apparent delight with which the little Indian boy, who had brought the canoe to us from Kishwake village up Rock river, partook of the bread and bacon which we gave him; it really seemed as 0194 182 though it were the most delicate food that he had ever tasted.

The valley of Rock river is about half a mile wide at this place; it is utterly destitute of rocks, differing, in this respect, very much from the characters observed higher up, and which have entitled it to the name that it now bears. We could not, however, ascertain whether the rocks were there in place, or merely boulders. We had, in the course of the morning, observed a spot where the limestone appeared in situ; this was in every respect similar to that found near Chicago. The boulders and pebbles which, from Chicago to Fox river, had not appeared to beds numerous, as in some other parts of the route, were, after we had seen the limestone in the morning, found to increase rapidly in number, though not perhaps in size. From his former observations upon the country, Major Long thought we were approaching what has been considered the lead Formation of the west, and this was confirmed by the assertion of our guide, that much lead had been found on some of the tributaries of Rock river, where it is worked, by the Indians, in small quantities for their own use. This induced us to make a careful examination of the country, with a view to ascertain whether any lead ore occurred upon our route, and if it did, under what circumstances. We met with none; but from all the characters observed in the country, we hesitate not in considering its surface as covered by ancient alluvion, the alluvion of mountains of the Wernerian school; and in which, of course, if any lead should be found, it must be out of its original site. This alluvion consists principally of a bed of loose and uncemented pebbles, varying in size from the smallest grain to the dimension of an apple, and interspersed with boulders, which frequently acquire very large dimensions; but 0195 183 these do not appear to be so frequent here, whether it be because they are buried in, and concealed by the pebbles, or because they were not deposited here, we had no means of determining. The alluvion appears to consist chiefly of the detritus of primitive rocks, such as fragments of quartz, granite, sienite, &c. but, as far as we could observe, without any trace of a metalliferous mineral. There are also many fragments of limestone, interspersed throughout the mass. Under the alluvion, the limestone observed in the morning probably extends to a great distance. From the observations which we have been able to make, we believe it to be the same limestone formation, which extends from Piqua to Fort St. Mary, and which is seen near Fort Wayne, Chicago, and Rock river. Whether it be the same as that observed further east, or in what relation it stands to it, we are not desirous of deciding positively, but we believe it to be at least as modern as that found above the coal formations of Wheeling and Zanesville, and perhaps more so. We have spoken of the supposed lead formations Rock river; not having visited Dubuque's lead mines, or those in the state of Missouri, it would be impossible for us to express a decided opinion upon their nature; but from all that we have heard on the subject, as well as from what has been written upon these lead mines, we can scarcely hesitate in considering the ore as being equally out of place there. Whether the original sites, from which it has been detached, are still to be found in the vicinity, is a point which those alone who have seen the country are competent to decide, if indeed the question can in the present state of science be resolved; the authors who have written upon this subject have, as it appears to us, left the question open; for while they assert that the lead is found in clay, they appear to us desirous to convey, at all times, 0196 184 the impression that it is in place, as we are informed that it “is found in detached pieces and solid masses, in veins and beds in red clay, and accompanied by sulphurate (sulphate?) of barytes, calcareous spar, blende, iron pyrites, and quartz.” * Now, that all the indications mentioned by those who have seen these mines, justify a belief that the lead is not in its original site, we consider as satisfactorily proved. That the Lead ore as well as the accompanying minerals, must be out of place, is equally apparent, from the circumstance, that while the clay is said to repose upon the limestone, the ore is not stated to have ever been worked in this rock. We are told, that “the greatest proportion of lead ore is, however, found imbedded in, and accompanied by, the sulphate of barytes resting in a thick stratum of marly clay, bottomed on limestone rock. The rock is invariably struck at a depth of from fifteen to twenty feet, and puts a stop to the progress of the miner in a common way. To go further, it is necessary to drill or blast, and this creates an expense which the generality of diggers are unwilling to incur, if not unable to support.” † Again, we find “in digging down from fifteen to twenty feet, the rock is generally struck; and as the signs of ore generally give out on coming to the rock, many of the pits are carried no further.” ‡ Finally, in his visit to Dubuque's lead mines, performed in the year 1820, Mr. Schoolcraft observed, that the ore “had been chiefly explored in alluvial soil; ” though he at the same time states, that “it generally occurs in beds or veins.” § From the specimens which we have seen, as well as from

* View of the Lead Mines of Missouri. New York, 1819. p. 67.

† Ibid, p. 69.

‡ Ibid, p. 108.

§ Schoolcraft's Narrative Journal of Travels, &c. p. 344.

0197 185 all that we have heard and read, we cannot hesitate in asserting it as our opinion, that no lead has as yet been discovered on the Merrimeg or Mississippi in a metalliferous limestone; * but that, wherever it has been found, it has always been in an alluvion, and never in regular veins or beds, nor even in masses, which might be considered as coeval with the substances in which they are imbedded.

* By metalliferous limestone, we allude to that in which the lead-mines of Cumberland and Derbyshire in England, of Vedrin in Belgium, &c. are found. This limestone is by most/geologist considered as older than the coal, and probably in many instances connected with transition formations; according to Conybeare and Phillips, it is placed, under the name of mountain limestone, between the old red sandstone formation and the coal measures. (Vide Geology of England and Wales, London, 1822, part 1, plate, fig. 3.)

On both banks of the Kishwake, not far from its mouth, there are many mounds in every respects similar to those with on Fox river; but scattered along the bank without any apparent order. Mr. Say counted upwards of thirty of these mounds. It is probable that they were formerly the cemeteries of a large Indian population which resided along the banks of the Kishwake, and which had:perhaps its principal village at the beautiful confluence of this stream with Rock river.

In travelling over a prairie country the party were often obliged to lengthen or shorten their day's journey, in order to accommodate themselves to the scarcity of water and wood. The afternoon of the 14th of June we encamped at three o'clock, as the distance to the next camping, ground would have led us too far into the evening. The afternoon was employed in taking observations for longitude, and in making such repairs and alterations in 24 0198 186 our travelling equipage as had become necessary. Our horses' backs had been chafed by the saddle, notwithstanding all the Care taken to keep them in a sound state, which was dictated not only by humanity, but also by provident attention to our own interest; for very little experience is required to satisfy a traveller that much of his comfort and expedition, on such a journey as ours, depends upon the circumstance of his horse's back not being galled, as it otherwise worries and tires the animal before he has performed much work. For the information of other travellers, we may mention, that after having tried many applications, we have found none that succeeded so well as white lead moistened with milk, as long as this could be procured; after we had left the settlements, sweet oil was used as a substitute for milk; whenever the application was made in the early stage of the wound we have found it to be very effectual. It is likewise a convenient one to carry on an expedition, as a couple of ounces of white lead sufficed for the whole of our party during more than a month.

The succeeding morning the weather was very fair, and the party continued its course over fine undulating prairies, expanded in every direction so as to appear in some cases unbounded by woods. The only defect which we observed in the country between Chicago and the Mississippi is the scarcity of wood, which is more seriously felt on the west side of Rock river, than to the east of it. This will perhaps be the principal difficulty in settling the country; otherwise the land is good, not hilly, sufficiently watered, and would we doubt not prove productive if well worked. Limestone is frequently to be met with, even west of Rock river; in other places the soil is underlaid with pebbles of white hornstone; the boulders are not sufficiently abundant 0199 187 to prove, injurious to agriculture; we observed as a distinction between those seen within the two last days, and those met with east of Rock river, that the former contain principally hornblende instead of mica in their composition, while the boulders near Lake Michigan were chiefly granitic. The rock, which has given rise to the hornblendic boulders, is one of a peculiar and interesting nature; it differs from sienite by the presence of quartz, from granite by the substitution of hornblende for mica. This rock has not received much attention from European authors; it does not appear to occupy a very important rank in the geology of Europe, while on the contrary it is very abundant in North America. Those, who are conversant with the mineralogy of New Jersey, know that it constitutes most of the primitive rocks which are found in West Jersey, and which have been described either as granite or sienite; however extensive that deposite may be, it bears no comparison to the extensive formation of this rock, which we shall have occasion hereafter to describe, and from which the fragments which constitute the boulders found in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, &c. have, as we believe, been detached.

After travelling eighteen miles, we reached a small stream, designated under the name of P[???]k-t[???]n-[???][???]n, a diminutive of P[???]kt[???]n[???][???] * a neighbouring stream into which it discharges, itself a few miles below. The meaning of this last in the Sauk language is muddy , and it is remarkable that the

* As we have had frequent opportunities of observing a nasal termination in Indian words, belonging both to the Sauk, Dacota, and other languages, we have adopted the sign ([???]) to designate this sound, which is equivalent to the nasal termination of the French language, thus in the word Pektannon, the last syllable is pronounced by the Indians exactly as the word non is by the French.

0200 188 same name has been applied to the Missouri by the Sauks. Our guide informed us that it was very common for the Sauks to form a diminutive of a word, by the addition of a hissing sound at the end, as in the above-mentioned instance. Observing that Le Sellier seemed to have gone beyond the limits of the country with which he was acquainted, Major Long thought it would be desirable to endeavour to procure an Indian, as a guide to Prairie du Chien; and as we were in the vicinity of an Indian village, Le Sellier was sent ahead, to request one of the men to accompany us. The village to which he went was situated on the main stream, about three miles from the place where we had halted for dinner on the Pektannons; it consisted of seven permanent and three temporary lodges, inhabited principally by Sauks, Foxes, Winnebagoes, Menomones, and Potawatomis. Their chief is a Sauk; he was absent, but we saw his elder brother, whom we engaged to accompany us to Prairie du Chien. His name was W[???][???]b[???]t[???][???]j[???][???]c, N[???]m[???][???][???]t[???], (spinning top,) the chief's name was W[???]ab[???][???]b[???]ea (white cedar.) We visited the inside of their bark lodges, which were very comfortable; the number of men appeared to us much greater than that of women in the village. Being aware of our approach, from the information received through Le Sellier, they had manifested their friendly disposition by hoisting flags, or white rags, all around their village and, among others, three white flags hung from the head and arms of a large cross, rudely cut out, which marked the grave of some departed white man. Their behaviour was less familiar than that of the Indians whom we had last met with; but as they evinced the same curiosity to examine our arms, we were led to ascribe their greater reserve, to the admonition given that morning to the Frenchman, that the familiar manner with which he behaved 0201 189 towards them, must be discontinued in our presence, as to that we ascribed their forwardness. The men of this village were distinguished from those observed in other places, by their unusually dark and expressive eyes, the playful smile of their mouth, and their well-formed nose. We found them very short or. provisions; they offered us, however, a bowlful of maize, which was very acceptable, as our bread-corn had been consumed. One of the party observed in the lodge a large basket, full of acorns intended no doubt for food. We proceeded that afternoon a few miles further, and encamped on a beautiful spot near the Pektannon; it was on the verge of a fine wood. The adjoining prairie afforded our horses the finest pasture that could he wished for; an attempt to fish was made, but it proved unsuccessful. It does not seem that these rivers abound in fish, and the Indians place no dependence upon the produce of the fishery for their support. While encamped this evening, we were visited by several Indians, who came from the village, and who behaved themselves in a very becoming manner. In order to compare the language of the Winnebagoes as spoken: here, with that contained in the vocabulary obtained by Major Long in the year 1817, and which is recorded in the “Account of an Expedition to the Rocky Mountains,” (vol. 2, p. lxxxvi.) we read to one of these Indians, who was a Winnebago, the words as published in the vocabulary, with a view to ascertain whether or not he understood them; the attempt was rather a difficult one, as he had to convey the meaning of the Winnebago term in the Sauk language to Le Sellier, who translated it into French to one of the party by whom it was reduced into English. The result of this threefold translation was, however, that he recognised, without hesitation, about one-third of the words; 0202 190 the meaning of the remainder, which he did not readily understand, being conveyed to him through the Sauk language, he repeated about one-half of them with a slight variation, frequently no other than the addition of a termination in ra which appeared to bed sort of dialect. Some of the words he seemed not to recognise at all, even after their supposed meaning had been explained to him through the interpreter.

Major Long, whose health had been somewhat impaired for a few days previous, was so severely affected, on the 15th, with fever and sick stomach, that we began to apprehend that his indisposition would prove a serious one, but the timely application of medical assistance fortunately relived him.

Wennebea, of whom we have preserved a very good likeness, taken by Mr. Seymour, (plate III.. middle figure;) is a young and good looking Indian, whose face denotes more cheerfulness than is generally observed in the countenance of man in the savage life. He seems to be of a lively, cheerful disposition, judging from the laughter which frequently animated his conversation with Le Sellier; to us he was always uniformly polite and obliging. His dress consisted, as usual with the Indians of this country, of a blanket thrown over his shoulders, and reaching to his ankles; a breech-cloth of blue broad-cloth; buckskin leggings and moccassins of the same material. The leggings are very similar to a Chinese garment that supplies the place of pantaloons; they reach up to the hips, covering the whole limb, and are secured to thongs tied to a leather belt around the waist. Garters, generally very much ornamented with porcupine quills, beads, and other fanciful articles, support the leggings immediately below the knee. His pipe was stuck into the plaited hair which he wore on 0203 191 the crown of his head. He was provided with a gun, of the kind distinguished by the name of Mackinaw gun, with a spare ramrod, shot-pouch, &c. Wennebea rode a little bay mare, with a long untrimmed tail; she was so small that his legs appeared almost to sweep the ground as he travelled over the prairie; but. the little animal was a fiery one, probably about four years old; her growth had doubtless been stinted by too early an application to labour. We could not help, frequently, expressing our admiration at the graceful and easy manner in which this man rode across the plain, occasionally allowing his blanket to drop upon his horse's back, and displaying the stout and symmetric shoulders and chest, which generally characterize man when in a state of nature, and unimpaired by the effeminating habits and vices of civilized life. We scarcely recognised our guide a few days afterwards, when we saw him with a calico shirt, which he had borrowed from Le Sellier and which concealed his well-formed limbs; on inquiring into the cause of this addition to his usual costume, we were told that the sun being very hot on the prairie, he had accepted the offer to protect his shoulders, against its influence, by means of a shirt. This proves how ready these Indians are to abandon their natural manners, and to assume the artificial ones of civilized man. Wennebea wore this garment at first with an apparent air of ostentation, which confirmed us in our opinion, that the Indian is no wiser than the white man in this respect, often:priding himself upon the acquisition of a garment, which detracts from, rather than adds to, his personal appearance. He seemed to be well acquainted with the country, and followed no track across the prairie; but his course was directed by landmarks, such as hills, woods, &c. He appeared to guide himself, likewise. by the situation of the 0204 192 in the heavens; but we were satisfied, on more than one occasion, of the inaccuracy of those who suppose that an Indian has an infallible method of discovering, at all times, the direction in which he wishes to travel, and that the never can be lost. His habits of observation, permit him, it is true, to discover signs, which would probably escape the attention of the less experienced white man. Thus, if the sun be obscured, his keen eye will sometimes detect, from habit, its place in the heavens; at other times, it is said that he can. by close inspection, discover very faint Shadows, which would elude the observation of a less practised eye. When these characters fail, he may, in a forest, point with certainty to the north from the circumstance, that the moss grows more abundantly upon that side of a tree than upon the others. But if left on a prairie, at a distance from trees when the heavens are deeply overclouded, or during the prevalence of a dense fog, the Indian, as well as the white man, will often be unable to direct himself properly. We frequently observed during the march, that he skreened his eyes with his hands, and seemed to study very attentively the distant points of woods and the surrounding prairie, whether to make sure of the proper route, or to discover signs of game or enemies, we know not.

Wennebea led us in a general north-westerly direction, at first through thin woods, which gradually disappeared, their place being supplied by an extensive and apparently boundless prairie, which occupied us a whole day in crossing it. The woods consisted of small oaks without undergrowth; the prairie, upon which we were travelling, was undulated, and extended itself along the base of the dividing ridge between the streams tributary to the Mississippi and those which fall into Rock river. This 0205 193 ridge stretched on our left, in a direction nearly parallel to our general course; it appeared to be in some places from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet high, and from six to eight miles distant. Soon after we entered the prairie, a deer crossed our route about two miles ahead of us; Wennebea started in pursuit, but returned in the course of an hour, after a fruitless and fatiguing chace. He brought back, however, a curlew, (Numenius longirostris,) a bird of which we occasionally roused a pair or two. We frequently observed the majestic sand-hill crane, (Grus Canadensis,) striding across the prairie. This animal, if taken young, can, it is said, be domesticated with ease. Two or three of them were kept last season at Chicago, being allowed to pass freely before the sentinels; but they never failed to return to their nests. We also saw on the prairie the fine swallow-tailed Hawk, (Falco [Milvus] furcatus,) flying over us. Our guide showed us a spot where an action had been fought. about sixty or seventy years ago, between the Sauks and the Peoras; the former were:successful and lost: but one man, while they, killed ten of the enemy. This took place on an elevated hill, commanding an extensive view of the prairie, and crowned with a forest in which the engagement is said to have taken place.

The country becomes interspersed with hills, which contribute to vary the scenery; among others which were very distinct, we observed two, rising close alongside of each other, forming two twin peaks insulated in the midst of the prairie; the distance between the two being about one and a quarter mite in an east and west direction; they are visible for upwards of thirty miles, and constitute one of the best landmarks we have ever seen. They are called in the Sauk language [???][???]n-n[???][???]-sh[???][???]-t[???][???]-n[???][???], (which signifies the two mountains being composed of [???][???]n-n[???][???]s, 25 0206 194 two, and [???][???]-t[???][???]-n[???][???], hills.) Our guide informed us that the hill marked on the maps as the Smoky-hill, ( Montagne qui bouccane of the French,) lay at a long day's march, (about: thirty miles,) in a north-easterly course from our noon encampment of the 16th. This hill has received from the Indians the appellation of M[???]-ch[???][???]-w[???][???]-k[???][???]-n[???]in, (Smoky mountain,) from the circumstance of its summit being generally enveloped with a cloud or fog, and, as we were told, not from any tradition of smoke having ever issued from it. To the left a point of highland is in sight, which is said to be at the mouth of the M[???]sch[???][???]k[???], (always full,) a stream that falls into the Mississippi. In the evening we encamped on the left bank of the W[???]ss[???]m[???][???], a beautiful tributary of the Pektannon; it is called after an Indian chief of that name, who resided on its banks; it means, in the Sauk language, lightning . On the banks of this stream we observed the limestone in place, forming cliffs of about fifty feet in height; the rock is in very distinct horizontal stratification; its structure is in many parts crystalline, or perhaps it may more properly be called gravelly and sandy; it contains many cells or cavities, some of which are filled with crystallizations of carbonate of lime; much white hornstone appears disseminated throughout the mass. The hornstone is sometimes seen to constitute small beds or layers from one to three or four inches in thickness, which are continued for several feet in length; frequently also appearing under the form of flattened irregular nodules, lying in an almost continuous line for a considerable distance, and with their long or flattened side parallel to the stratification; resembling in this respect the disposition of the clay-iron stone in the slaty strata that accompany the bituminous coal. Organic remains are by no means uncommon, though they are not found as abundantly as in some other spots of our route; they consist 0207 195 of Terebratulites, Encrinites, and a Madreporite, (Linné;) the true nature of the last of these could not be ascertained without a comparison of characters, which we were unable to make on the spot, and which the loss of all the specimens collected between Fort Wayne and Fort St. Anthony has prevented Mr. Say from making since; the rock is of a grayish-yellow colour, with a loose structure. We are aware that some of the characters, which we have given of this rock, might lead to the opinion that it resembles the mountain or carboniferous limestone Of Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips; and consequently that it is the same as the metalliferous limestone of other geologists; but we would consider this union as a very hasty, not to say, an incorrect one. Although its cavernous nature, its indications of crystallization, and its organic remains, present an apparent correspondence with those of that limestone, as described by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, in the excellent “Outlines of the GeolOgy of England and Wales,” (Part I. p. 353.) we incline to the opinion that this rock is of a much later formation; we believe it to be connected with a limestone which was subsequently observed on the Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and St. Anthony, and in which we observed an oolite and a pulverulent limestone similar to the calcareous ashes described by Mr. Freiesleben in his elaborate account of the formations of Thuringen. If we compare the characters of this rock with those of the limestone observed by Mr. Freiesleben, and described by him under the name of zechstein and rauchwacke , we will be surprised at the great similarity in their appearance. The “ zechstein is a compact, hard and tough limestone of an ash-gray colour passing into blackish-gray, distinctly stratified, without however presenting any slaty 0208 196 appearance, or at least much less so than the inferior beds it contains specks and some veins of calcareous spar and gypsum; also crystals of quartz, &c.; it likewise offers sometimes specks of galena. It generally presents but few petrifactions, Corallites and Millepores, as well as several species of Terebratulites; Ammonites, &c. have been found in it.”

“Above this compact limestone another stratum of calcareous rock is found which is known in the country under the name of rauchwacke , (smoky wacke;) it is a limestone probably intermixed with silex, of a dark-gray, sometimes blackish colour, with a somewhat scaly fracture, occasionally fine-grained, sometimes though seldom oolitic, hard, tough, and filled with pores or cavities; this last feature is characteristic; it may be observed even in those parts of the stratum which appear most compact; the cavities are angular, long, and narrow, (as in a cracked clay;) the interior of the cavities is lined with small crystals of calcspar, these cavities are sometimes large, being several yards in length and breadth, &c.”

He afterwards proceeds to describe the ashes or pulverulent substance found near it. This, from its great similarity to the residue of the combustion of wood, is designated in Germany by the name of asche , (ashes.) These characters, when taken into connection, appear to us to correspond so well with those observed on the Wassemon, on the Mississippi, and throughout the country between Rock river and Prairie du Chien, that we feel strongly induced to consider the limestone of this country as analogous to that observed by Mr. Freiesleben. This limestone is by some European continental geologists referred to the Lias of English geologists; but we would 0209 197 rather refer it, with Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips, to the newer magnesian or conglomerate limestone of England; to this, we think, it has the strongest analogy. It is probably connected, as we have already intimated, with the limestone situated above the coal fields of Wheeling and Zanesville; it extends over those parts of Ohio and Indiana, where salt has been found; it is observed cellular, cavernous, &c. on the banks of the Wassemon; it is connected with real calcareous ashes on the Mississippi. The presence of the oolite which was observed here in a single spot, does not militate against the position which we have taken, as we find it stated, by Conybeare and Phillips, (page 302,) on the authority of Mr. Wynch, that the magnesian limestone is occasionally oolitic. It presents in many of its points, the characters of the rauchwacke , and especially the cellular or cavernous structure; it is seldom found very abundantly strewed with organic remains; its colour is the pate buff passing to the ash-gray. In fine, the more attentively we examine it, the more closely do we find it to connect itself with the formations of Thuringen, and with those which cover so extensive a part of England, and more particularly with that observed in Yorkshire by Professor Buckland; offering thus, as it appears to us, a beautiful confirmation of the analogy established between the various kinds of this limestone, observed in divers parts of Europe There is an experiment which would, as we conceive, place the matter beyond a doubt; this would be an analysis of the limestone with a view to ascertain the quantity of magnesia which it contains, and we regret much that the loss of our specimens has deprived us of the opportunity of making this; analysis. But we think the case sufficiently strong to justify us in considering this as the formation corresponding to the magnesian limestone of 0210 198 England, and to the rauchwacke and zechstein of Thuringen. *

* The reader is referred to the Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales, by the Rev. W. D. Conybeare and Win. Phillips, &c. London, 1822, p. 300, & seq. Traité de Géognosie, par J. F. D'Aubuisson de Voisins, Paris, 1819. Vol. II. p. 336, 337, 343, 353. J. C. Freiesleben's Geognostiche Arbeiten, (Beytrag zur kentniss des kupferschiefer-gebirges.)

In offering these remarks to geologists, we have not overlooked the very correct observation of one whose experience adds Value to the advice which he gives to naturalists; indeed we have found the truth of Mr. D'Aubuisson's remark fully exemplified here. “Let us further observe,” says he, “that the influence of localities becomes more sensible as we draw nearer to modern epochas, and we will be convinced of the difficulty of drawing certain conclusions as to the identity of two calcareous formations somewhat distant.” If with this remark before us, we are thought to have ventured too much in supposing a connection between the formations Of England and Germany, and those west of the Alleghanies, let it be remembered that we only offer this as a suggestion to the future investigator of our western limestone, in order that he may turn his attention to the subject with more favourable opportunities of observation than those afforded us by a transient visit through the country. We shall have occasion to mention some further facts which we consider as adding evidence to the opinion which we have advanced. But there is another question which naturally arises; if, as Mr. Freiesleben has described it, the zechstein presents specks of galena or sulphuret of lead; if, as Mr. Conybeare states, the galena is seen “occurring in strings in the magnesian limestone of Nottingham and Durham;” if 0211 199 it has been occasionally found in the conglomerate beds associated with this formation, particularly near Mendiphills, in England; if it contains veins of sulphate of barytes at the Huddleston quarry near Sherburn, between Ferrybridge and York; if it is traversed by veins of sulphate of barytes near Nottingham, at Bramham Moor, &c. may it not then be asked, whether these considerations do not render it probable that the great lead deposite of the west is in this limestone? and is it not likely that all that has been worked in an alluvion has been detached from this formation? These are questions upon which, in the present state of our acquaintance with the western limestone, we must profess ourselves unable to give any decided opinion; but from various circumstances which we need not dwell upon, we should incline to consider the lead ore as probably existing in an older limestone which we think underlays this; and which may be connected with the mountain or carboniferous limestone of Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips, with the metalliferous limestone of other geologists.

The country becomes more undulated as we draw nearer to the Mississippi; the ridges are low but somewhat steep, owing to the horizontal stratification of the rocks; one of their sides very frequently discovers the composition of the hills by a steep break. At other times the country presents the waved appearance of a somewhat ruffled ocean; it is covered, with a short dry grass, the vegetation generally appearing inferior to that of the alluvial country through which we had previously passed. This waved appearance seems to have been caused by the production of valleys subsequently formed, and extending from north-east to southwest, all dipping to the latter point; these are said to continue almost in a straight line to the Mississippi. Our object being to strike that river at a point further north, our 0212 200 course, which approaches to a north-west direction, obliges us to cross all these ridges and valleys nearly at right angles. No granitic blocks are to be seen; this is accounted for by the fact that we are no longer upon the alluvial formation, but upon the magnesian limestone which rises to a greater height, constituting the dividing ridge between the Mississippi, Rock river, and the Wisconsan, and perhaps connecting itself with what have been termed the Wisconsan hills.

The features, which we observed from the Wassemon to the Wisconsan, are extremely interesting. At a distance of a few miles north-west of the former stream, the vegetation presented a sudden and striking change, announcing a corresponding one in the geological character of the country. We ascended a rough, steep, and hilly ground, which was covered with heavy timber, and with a very thick underwood, consisting principally of young oak and aspen. This thick brush-wood continued for about two miles, when we struck the bank of a small stream, remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, which differed from any that we had hitherto met with. The brook runs in a deep and narrow glen, the sides of which are very steep and in some places vertical, they are covered at their summit with a dense vegetation, which extends over the edge of the rock, and imparts a character of austerity and of gloom to this secluded valley, which finds not its parallel in any that we recollect having ever seen. The dark colour, which the water receives from the deep shadows cast by the high steep bank and its over-hanging vegetation, forms a pleasing relief to the glare, so uniformly fatiguing, of the unsheltered prairie. This spot conveyed so much relief to the eye and to the mind, that the party could not repress their delight on beholding it. The geologist who connects a change in the nature of the 0213 201 subjacent rock, with a diversity in the character of the country, or of its vegetation, would naturally find, an explanation for the new features which the country assumes, by observing that the high banks of this glen are formed of sandstone rocks, the nature of which we had an opportunity of studying with attention, during a great part of our journey of the 18th of June. We observed that the sandstone is distinctly superposed to the limestone; that it constitutes upon it hills, which vary from thirty to one hundred feet and upwards; these hills are divided by valleys, in the bottom of which the limestone reappears in place. The sides of the hills are steep, and but few indications of stratification are observable, except where the valley is partly excavated in the limestone itself; in which case the lower part of the hill is less steep, but presents a distinct stratification. The line of superposition of the sandstone over the limestone, may also be traced with considerable accuracy, by the examination of the vegetation. Whenever the latter rock prevails, the surface is even and smooth or modified by gentle swells, covered with a thick and long grass, and forming an uniform fine green, meadow-like country, while the sandstone invariably imparts to the surface an asperity which is as distinct as the vigorous growth of trees with which it is covered, and as its abundant undergrowth, which denotes a strong and productive soil, having a tendency to bear heavy forests.

The rock is a white sandstone, formed of fragments of fine transparent and colourless quartz, united by a cement, which in some parts appears to be ferruginous, while in others it is colourless, and probably of a calcareous nature. In some parts the cement is quite invisible, and would almost lead to the belief that the union of the grains was a crystalline one. This sandstone appears in fragments 26 0214 202 or tatters, and constitutes the remains of a formation, which probably covered the whole of the limestone, at least in this part of the country, That it is above the limestone, no doubt can exist, in our minds, as we saw the immediate superposition. It sometimes appears, it is true, to sink below the level of that rock; and this led us at first to apprehend that there might be an alternation of strata, but a careful examination of all these spots has left no doubt in our minds, that in these eases the sandstone is deposited in coves or valleys formed in the limestone previous to the deposition of the sandstone; these eases are, however, not common, and we may safely state, as a general rule, that not only the sandstone is relatively above the limestone, but that it is even, in almost all cases, at a greater absolute elevations; and the spot, at which We first met With it, west of the Wassemon, was considerably elevated above the usual level of the limestone; for, wherever the sandstone has retained its position, it has protected the limestone against decomposition, and hence, in such places, the latter rock still continues to rise to a higher level than where it is laid bare, and exposed to the destructive influence of atmospherical agents. We also observed very distinctly, that while the valleys, formed in the limestone at a time anterior to the deposition of the sandstone, were few, those produced subsequently were numerous, as was indicated by the great roughness and unevenness of the sandstone country, and by the many undulations in the uncovered limestone which we have already had occasion to mention. From the observations made on the 18th, it was thought very probable that all the hills observed at a distance on the 17th, were formed of this sandstone; and from some characters which had appeared, at the time, to present an anomaly, it was inferred that the Enneshoteno or twin mountains, near which 0215 203 we had passed that day, without Stopping, were probably also remains of the general sandstone formation which extended over the whole country. No organic remains were observed in the sandstone, or in the limestone which underlays it; but no doubt can exist that they may contain some, and that the limestone probably contains many.

Proceeding towards the Wisconsan, the country presents an alternation of rolling and undulated prairie, interspersed with hills composed of either one or the other of these rocks. The sandstone is found in most places to be covered with thin flattened fragments of a stone, differing in its nature and texture from the character of the other rocks, whether of limestone or sandstone. These fragments are generally observed to vary from three to twelve inches in length, from two to eight in breadth, and from one quarter to one inch in thickness; they present appearances of having been weathered. but not of having been rolled; they are very abundant, and we could account for them in no other way than by admitting that they were the remains, probably the harder parts, of a stratum that had at one time covered the sandstone, but that had disappeared almost entirely, leaving only these fragments to attest its former existence and situation. On examining these fragments with care, we found them to be very uniform in their characters; their composition is in great measure calcareous, but from their greater hardness we consider it as partly siliceous; they are replete with organic remains; these are principally referrible to the Productus, Terebratula, &c. We saw none but what belonged to bivalves. The existence of these fragments was observed upon many elevations, over a considerable extent of country, while in the rallies no trace of them could be seen. Generalizing the observations made during the three last days of our journey previous 0216 204 to our arrival on the Mississippi, we are led to admit that there are, or rather that there were formerly, two distinct formations of limestone in this country, and that they were separated by a thick stratum of sandstone; of these two limestone formations, the older one, which we have already described with minuteness, we have been induced to consider as coeval with, or analogous to, the magnesian limestone of England. The superior formation is distinguished by the circumstance of its containing harder fragments or nodules of limestone, which alone remain to establish the fact of its former existence; that it contained no hornstone or flinty quartz, as observed in the former, we are led to believe, because had they existed they must necessarily have resisted decomposition as well or better than the calcareous nodules which are now found alone. The much greater abundance of shells in these nodules, and the total absence of the Madreporites appear to us to be very characteristic distinctions between these and the underlaying limestone, though perhaps too much weight ought not to be assigned to the absence of the Madreporites, as these from their loose and more porous texture may have been unable to resist the decomposing causes which appear to have affected this formation. In some places a limestone bed was observed upon the sandstone, but these depositions were so partial, and in all cases the ground was so much overgrown with bushes, that we were unable to examine their characters with any degree of minuteness. This striking difference, however, we observed, and we are led to consider it as constant, that the inferior limestone, whenever it appears exposed, is covered with small scales or fragments of the hornstone nodules whose existence has already been alluded to, while none of the flat, calcareous fragments, abounding in shells, 0217 205 are found upon it; whereas these were uniformly observed to the exclusion of the scales of hornstone upon the surface of the calcareous stratum that overlays the sandstone. If contrary to the opinion which we have been led to adopt, the limestone be supposed to constitute but one formation, whether above or below the Sandstone; then will we ask, whence come these flattened fragments, observed upon the sandstone? If from the remains of a more solid stratum in the limestone itself, why, let us again ask, are not these likewise observed upon the inferior limestone itself? Why is not the hornstone, which appears to characterize the lower limestone, also observed upon the sandstone? We might further ask, if the limestone above and below the sandstone bed be the same, ought we not to find signs of calcareous beds subordinate to the sandstone, and would we not have a right to expect an interposition of limestone in the immense bed of sandstone which, as we have previously feet in thickness? Yet this we never observe to be the case.

If an alteration of sandstone and limestone strata belonging to the same formation were indicated by the characters previously alluded to, would we not be entitled to expect that the fragments and detritus of both should be found together? Yet in the valleys of the sandstone country, and particularly in the beautiful and romantic one which rested upon the limestone, and was enclosed by sandstone hills, we observed no fragments of the former rock, and but a few large blocks of Sandstone which had evidently fallen of late from the sides of the valley. While travelling on the hills we observed that they were covered, in certain parts, with a thin stratum of fine sand, resulting from a slight decomposition of the rock, as is observable in all sandstones of a loose texture.

0218 206

From what has been previously observed on the comparative age of the limestone of the Wassemon with the formations of Europe, we readily discover that this sandstone cannot be older than the variegated sandstone, (Bunt sandstein,) of Werner, and we have reason to consider it as an analogous formation. This of course corresponds with the new red sandstone or red marl of English geologists. In this formation in England the red marl certainly predominates; we are not, however, to be surprised if in America we should find the marl almost deficient, and the sandstone in its place; for it cannot be expected that the same uniformity, which exists between the primitive or general formations of the old and new continent, will be observed between the secondary or partial formations; if we can trace a general resemblance, we have perhaps gone further than we were justified in expecting. With the variegated sandstones of Germany this formation presents a great analogy, and perhaps its most remarkable difference, though undoubtedly a very trifling one in reality, is in the colour, which is seldom red, though it occasionally becomes so. This, among many other instances, proves the great desideratum that geologists should agree upon names more intelligible and less arbitrary than those which have been usually adopted; if the formations of Europe and America are to be compared, (and the daily progress of science proves that even those of asia and Africa will soon be sufficiently investigated to enable us to take them into consideration,) we ought to have better names than those derived from the most fugitive of all characters, that of colour.

The limestone formation, the existence of which above the sandstone we think we have been enabled to establish, appears to us from its mineralogical as well as its geological 0219 207 characters to connect itself with the Lias of England, and more particularly with that variety so well known in France and Germany under the name of Calcaire coquillier , (muschel kalk of Werner,) which constitutes, as is well known, the upper bed of what was formerly termed the Jura limestone; and which is inferior to the great oolitic series of England, of which it forms as it were the foundation. This oolitic series must not be considered as including the oolites which have been occasionally observed in the Jura limestone of the French, the zechstein of the Germans, and the magnesian limestone of England. In all these instances the oolite forms but a partial and probably an accidental deposite in a limestone, which is certainly inferior to the variegated ( Bunt ) sandstone, or new red sandstone formation. We have in this account of the western limestones studiously avoided, until this time, introducing the terms of Alpine and Jura limestones, and comparing them together, as it appears to us Well established that the greatest confusion has prevailed from the indiscriminate application of these words. The truth of this will be acknowledged by those who recollect that, by some geologists, the two names have been used to indicate the same limestone, (at least in certain cases,) while some have removed almost all the Alpine limestone into the transition formations, and others have extended the Jura limestone to make it include the muschel kalk of Germany, which we have good grounds for considering as coeval with the Lies of England. It will doubtless, be observed by those who have made a particular study of the limestone formations to which we have alluded, that there are some apparent contradictions in our statement. That for instance, the asche and the oolite observed on the Mississippi cannot be considered as connected together, and with the cavernous limestone of the Wassemon, 0220 208 without bringing together limestones, which in Europe at least, are found of very different ages, unless we adopt the opinion that this oolite is subordinate to the magnesian limestone. This We are disposed to do, as we have no reason to believe that the formations of the Mississippi are superior to those of the Wassemon, or that they are separated by the new red sandstone formation; if we could venture to express an opinion, where much doubt really exists, we would say that the oolite was of the same age as the asche , or pulverulent limestone, and that it probably constitutes merely an accidental modification of the magnesian limestone Similar to that observed “at Hartlepool on the coast of Northumberland, where a stratum of hard white oolite exists, the grains composing it being about the size of a mustard seed,” and similar to the oolitic varieties which Mr. Freiesleben observed sometimes, though Seldom, in the rauchwacke .

If in the rude and Unsatisfactory sketch which we have presented of these formations, we have thrown any light upon a doubtful and obscure point, we doubt not we shall be excused, by the experienced geologist, for the apparent contradictions which we may have revealed. Our Object has been to state the facts as they came under our notice, and without any intention to establish a connection between the formations of Europe, and those which we have described. If the facts militate against observations made abroad, we must regret it; but we have only stated them as they have appeared to us. Our opinion remains, however, unchanged, that whenever these observations shall be repeated under more favourable circumstances, the difficulties will vanish, and the analogy between the formations of Europe and ours, will appear still greater; a due allowance being of course made for those differences which 0221 209 result from the local circumstances that may have influenced these partial deposites.

Those geologists, who have been called upon to make observations in a wild and uncultivated country, where the rocks are frequently concealed by a luxuriant vegetation, where the industry of man has not penetrated by means of quarries, wells, &c. into the bowels of the earth, and where no facilities exist to roam at large in search of breaks, will, we think, appreciate the difficulties which we have had to encounter in the examination of this section of the country; difficulties which have been increased by the loss of our specimens, whence we have been obliged to depend exclusively upon the descriptions recorded in our notes at the time, without being allowed an opportunity of comparing the characters of the rocks with those observed on former occasions.

Observations were made by Mr. Colhoun for the purpose of the longitude of our encampment on the Wassemon, which he determined to be 90° 4′ 45″ West. The latitude was also obtained by observations made at midnight, and was found to be 42° 30′ 10″ North. We remarked with pleasure the surprise and delight expressed in Wennebea's face, during these observations. His astonishment the characters of the mercury, used for an artificial horizon, showed that he had never seen any thing like it; his delight was strongly marked ever time he placed his finger upon the bright and dense mercury, and observed the fluid, receding from his touch, and receiving an impression as though it had been water; yet, as he observed, not possessed of the property of wetting his finger like the latter fluid. He was shown the construction of the sextant, and very soon learnt the use of it. As soon as he saw the double image of the moon, he raised his two fingers in 27 0222 210 token of what he had seen. To one disposed to indulge in the sublime views of Plato, on the immortality of the soul, (Cic. de Senec. Cap. 21,) it would have appeared as if there floated in Wennebea's mind, at that time, an indistinct recollection of what had once been familiar to him. His mind seemed to have received a deep impression from the contemplation of the heavens, but it still remains questionable with us, whether his feelings were produced by the Wonderful grandeur of the planets which he had beheld, and by the associations with which he connected them, or by the ingenuity of white men, who with a sort of talisman, had brought, within the sphere of his vision, objects which Were previously unknown to him, and imparted to him thereby, as it were, a new sense. It seemed as if his mind was overflowing; and be Very willingly answered the questions which were put to him, concerning his ideas of the objects he had been beholding. He believed the sun to be the residence of a male Deity, who looks placidly upon the earth, and who being propitious to man, exposes to his view the wild beasts and serpents which cross his path. He thought, that immediately after death, the soul quits its mortal residence, and journeys towards the setting sun, where, if its life had been spent in a manner agreeable to the Deity, it finds no difficulty in stepping over the agitated log which stretches across the gulf. It then becomes an eternal inhabitant of the “Village of the Dead,” situated in a prairie, that abounds in all the pleasures which the simple imagination of the Indian can covet. The moon, on the contrary, he held to be inhabited by an adverse female Deity, whose delight is to cross man in all his pursuits. If during their sleep, this Deity should present herself to them in their dreams, the Indians consider it as enjoined upon them by duty, to become cinædi; they ever 0223 211 after assume the female garb. It is not impossible that this may have been the source of the numerous stories of hermaphrodites, related by all the old writers on America.

Wennebea thought that the Great Spirit had a human form, was white, and wore a hat. It is remarkable that this personification of the Supreme Being under a different appearance from their own, is not peculiar to the Sauks; the Mexicans and the Muypuscas represented him as white, and wearing a beard; the Santees, according to Lawson, held the belief that he was white. “They made answer,” says he, “that they had been conversing with the White Man above, (meaning God Almighty. * )” It would be curious to inquire whether there was any connexion between this white complexion attributed to the Deity, and the prophecies which are said to have prevailed among some of the Virginia tribes, as well as at Quizquiz near the Mississippi, of the coming of white men among them. †

* A New Voyage to Carolina, by John Lawson. London, 1709, p. 20.

† Purchas's Pilgrimage, p. 843. Narrative of De Soto's invasion of Florida, written by a gentleman of Elvas, and translated by Hackluyt. London, 1609, p. 90.

These reported prophecies, existing previous to the discovery of this continent, (concerning the arrival of white men,) are represented by the early writers as very common; whether they really existed in the country, or were artfully circulated by the invaders, may be a matter of doubt. Montezuma, in a speech to his subjects, in the presence of Cortez, is said to have alluded to this subject. An old writer, John de Laet, reports the same belief to have been prevalent in the island of Cozumel, on the coast of Yucatan, and distant from it about four leagues, in latitude 20°N. This author enters into many particulars on this 0224 212 subject, which we are disposed to consider as altogether of his own invention. *

* Joannis de Laet, Americæ utriusque Descriptio. Lugd. Bat. 1633, lib. 5, cap. 27, or p. 273

On the 17th of June our route was diversified by hills and valleys. The Smoky mountain to the east, and Dubuque's to the west, formed distinct objects of vision, while the long ridge, covered with forest, which extended to the left, indicated the course of the “Great river,” as the Mississippi has been emphatically called in the Algonquin languages.

A badger was this day discovered by the dogs in the prairie, and after they had brought it to bay, the Indian killed it with his tomahawk; it was cooked for dinner, and those who eat of it, found it very good. This was near a small stream, called by the Indians M[???]-k[???]-b[???]-[???] S[???]p[???], or Small-pox river; It is the Riviere de la Fievre , which is said to enter the Mississippi opposite to Dubuque's mines.

On the morning of the 18th, the sun shone indistinctly through a mist, which offered us the singular phenomenon of a beautiful Iris without rain. We encamped that afternoon at an early horny on a small stream which is a tributary of the Wisconsan and, as we supposed, at a distance of about twelve miles from the place where we intended to cross that river.

The next morning, after a fatiguing ride over a rough and hilly country, we reached the banks of the Wisconsan; as we could not ford it, we prepared a light raft, and sent Bemis across to obtain boats at Fort Crawford. From the account of our guides, we thought we were Opposite to a point in the river, known by the name of the Petit cap au Gres , (little sand-stone bluff,) situated about six miles above the confluence of the Wisconsan and Mississippi; 0225 213 but we afterwards found that we were nine miles higher than our guides had reported us to be. The place where we encamped, until means of transportation across the river could be procured, was in a wood at the foot of a high and steep bank; it was almost the only dry place in the vicinity, the river bank above and below it being swampy. The river was about a third of a mile wide, and the current very rapid.

About sunset we observed two boats advancing up the river, in one of which Colonel Morgan, the commanding officer at Fort Crawford, had come up with Lieutenant Scott to meet our party. This polite attention on the part of the Colonel gave us a foretaste of the hospitable reception which we met with during our stay in his quarters.

Although it was late, yet as the weather was fine, the party effected a crossing of the Wisconsan, and having relieved their horses of all unnecessary baggage, the gentlemen proceeded under Colonel Morgan's guidance towards the Fort. It was eight o'clock when they left the Wisconsan, and about eleven when they reached the Mississippi. This ride, at a late hour, was one of a most romantic character; the evening was fair and still; not a breath of wind interrupted the calmness of the scenery; the moon shone in her full, and threw a pale light over the trackless course which we travelled. Our way lay across a beautiful country, where steep and romantic crags contrasted pleasantly with widely extended prairies, which, seen by the uncertain light of the moon, appeared to spread around like a sheet of water. Our party was sufficiently numerous to form a long line, which assumed a more imposing character from the dark and lengthened shadows which each east behind him. All seemed to have their spirits excited by the sublimity of the scene. Even the 0226 214 Indian, Whose occupations must have accustomed him to such excursions, appeared to have received art accession of spirits, and the loud whoops which he occasionally gave, as he raised the summit of a hill, enlivened the ride. Our course was a winding one along the glens which divide the bluffs; and whenever we rode in the direction of the moon's rays, the vivid flashes of light, reflected by our military accoutrements, contributed to impart to the whole a character entirely new to many of the gentlemen of the expedition. It was impossible to be a sharer in this splendid prospect, without joining in the enthusiasm to which it naturally gave rise; and however much disposed the mind may be at such an hour, and in such a solitude, to recall, with deep feeling, the image of abodes endeared by the presence of far distant friends, it would have been impossible for any one of us to wish himself at that moment on any other spot, but in the deep and narrow valleys, or on the smooth prairies, which have imparted to this portion of the scenery of the Mississippi, a character of sublimity and beauty, which we would perhaps vainly seek for on any other point of the long extended course of the “Father of Rivers.”

At Prairie du Chien we sojourned for five days; the object of this delay was to obtain the escort which was to accompany the party up the St. Peter. While Major Long's attention was engaged in superintending these preparations, the gentlemen attended to their respective departments. The distance from Chicago to Prairie du Chien, by the route which the party travelled, is two hundred and twenty-eight miles, which, having been performed in nine days, give an average of twenty-five miles per day. No person had ever one through this route in a direct line before we did which is surprising when we 0227 215 consider the extent and antiquity of the trade carried on in this part of the country, and the facilities which the route affords. On no part of our journey have we travelled with more comfort to ourselves, the soil being dry and firm, well watered, and sufficiently interspersed with woods to afford us a constant supply of this article for fuel; the grass is generally fine, so that our horses fared well; the country only became rough as we approached the Wisconsan. This river, like the Ohio, seems to unite with the Mississippi in a hilly country; the hills rise to the height of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet; their sides are abrupt, and their soil is but indifferent. The Wisconsan has been, for a long time past, the usual communication between the lakes and the Mississippi. About one hundred and eighty miles above the mouth of the Wisconsan, this river comes so near to the Fox river of Greenbay, that a portage of two thousand five hundred yards, across a low and level prairie which is occasionally overflowed, establishes a connection between the two streams. From the portage down to the mouth of Fox river in the Greenbay of Lake Michigan, the distance is computed at from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and eighty miles. The Wisconsan river, which takes its rise near the hills of the same name, extends at least one hundred and fifty miles above the portage. It is represented as having, throughout its course, a rapid current, and but a shallow channel, from which circumstances the ascent is difficult and troublesome. Fox river is formed by the union of two branches, one of which rises at a short distance from the portage road; its course, which is at first westwardly, soon takes a general easterly direction, but the river is at all times very crooked; it falls into Greenbay near Fort Howard.

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The country, through which these rivers pass, is inhabited by the Menomones, Winnebagoes, Sauks, and Foxes, but principally by the two first mentioned nations; the Menomones being chiefly found near the mouth of Fox river, and the Winnebagoes near the portage road, and in the vicinity of the lake which bears their name. The latter are considered as being of distinct origin from the Algonquin tribes, their language is said to present much greater difficulties. It abounds in harsh and guttural sounds, and in the letter r , which does not appear to be common in the Algonquin languages. We have already had occasion to advert to the termination, in ra , added to many of the Words by the Winnebago whom we saw on the Pektannon. It is difficult to obtain correct information concerning their manners and characters, a strong prejudice appears to prevail against them. They are considered unfriendly to white men, and this, instead of being viewed in the light of a favourable trait in their character, as indicative of a high spirit, which can resent injustice and oppression, and which will not crouch before the aggresssor, has been the occasion of much ill will towards them; they have been, probably without cause, charged with many offences which they did not commit. If we can place any dependence upon the character given to them by Carver, we should consider them as no worse than other Indians; indeed his acquaintance with them appears to have left a favourable impression upon his mind. Their appellation in their own language is believed to be Otchagras; whence the term Winnebago has been derived we have not been able to ascertain not having met with it in any author riot to Carver. By the French they were called Puants or Stinkers, name is attributed by Charlevoix, to their feeding principally upon fish. “I judge,” says he, “it was there, 0229 217 (on the borders of a lake,) that living on fish, which they got in the lake in great plenty, they gave them the name of Puants , because all along the shore where their Cabins are built, one saw nothing but stinking fish which infected the air?”

In a manuscript narrative of a journey from Bellefontaine on the Missouri to the Falls of St. Anthony, and to the Wisconsan portage, performed in 1817, by Major Long, we have observed the following account of their mode of conveying information by a sort of hieroglyphic writing.

“When we stopped,” says Major Long, “to dine, White Thunder, (the Winnebago chief that accompanied me,) suspecting that the rest of his party were in the neighbourhood, requested a piece of paper, pen and ink, to communicate to them the intelligence of his having come up with me. He then seated himself and drew three rude figures, which at my request he explained to me. The first represented my boat with a mast and flag, with three benches of oars and a helmsman; to show that we were Americans, our heads were represented by a rude cross, indicating that we wore hats. The representation of himself was a rude figure of a hear over a kind of cypher representing a hunting ground. The second figure was designed to show that his wife was with him; the device was a boat with a squaw seated in it; over her head lines were drawn in a zigzag direction, indicating that she was the wife of White Thunder. The third was a boat with a bear sitting at the helm, showing that an Indian of that name had been seen on his way up the river, and had given intelligent, where the party were. This paper he set up at the mouth of Kickapoo creek, up which the party had gone on a hunting trip.” * 28

* Major Long's MS Journal of a voyage, &c. 1817, No. 1, folio 27

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While at Prairie du Chien, we endeavoured to obtain from Wennebea as much information as we could concerning his nation; and this, together with the notices collected from him and Le Sellier during the journey constitutes the basis of the following account of the manners of the Sauks. As they are evidently of Algonquin origin, and therefore connected with the Potawatomis, we have only retained such parts of the information as had not been mentioned before, or in which a difference was observed between the two nations.

The Sauks call themselves in their own language, S[???][???]-k[???]-w[???][???]. They are a brave, warlike, and, as far as we could learn, a generous people The great reduction in their numbers arose from their hostility to the French and their allies, and also to the wars which they formerly waged against the Indians on the Missouri and Mississippi, such as the Pawnees, the Omawhaws, the Sioux, the Iowas, &c. Owing to the rapid advance of the white population, and the increasing influence of our government over them, they are becoming more peaceable, and from this circumstance their numbers are probably on the increase. Their historical recollections do not extend far back but they have been told that about sixty years since, when the French occupied the country, one of the Sauk chiefs by the name of M[???]-n[???]-t[???]-m[???]t, found himself surrounded with about sixty of his nation by a party of French and Indians, belonging to other tribes, amounting altogether to two thousand. Menetomet then addressed his men, bidding them not to fear, for he had been favoured with a vision from the Great Spirit that informed him that if they all fought bravely, not one of them should perish. Encouraged by this assertion, they fought with such desperation as to break the ranks of and escape without the loss of a single man. 0231 219 They were afterwards led by their chiefs towards the Butte de Mort on Fox river, and were on the point of being cut off by their enemies, when a peace was effected by the intervention of a French officer. Wennebea informed US that his grandfather was in this party; had it been cut off the nation would, as he thinks, have been totally annihilated; for these composed the whole force of the Sauks. Their numbers have since considerably increased, as according to his estimate, the nation now consists of upwards of a thousand warriors; in this number are included all the active, able-bodied, and middle aged part of the nation. This great accession to their numbers, results principally from their system of adopting their prisoners of war. The real number of warriors of pure Sank extraction does not, in his opinion, exceed two hundred. The Fox nation, which appears to be very closely united with the Sauk, was at that time likewise much reduced; it is stated that at one time there were but three lodges of Fox Indians left; these reports are probably in some respects exaggerated. The system of adoption seems to be carried to a great extent, and the duties which it involves are of a peculiar character; it seems to have in a great measure stifled all patriotism and attachment to their kin. It is true, that men, reputed good among them, ought not to wander from tribe to tribe nor from village to village; neither is it prudent for them to do so, for in case of hostilities breaking out, the new comers would always be the first sacrificed. If a man should marry in a different nation from his own, he:continues to live with his wife's nation as long as they remain at peace, but should a war be declared he must leave his wife and return to his tribe. This does not; however, apply to one who has been made prisoner; if a captive be adopted as one of the nation of his captors, he must forsake 0232 220 all his former ties; he settles in the nation that adopts him, forfeits all allegiance to his native tribe, and contracts new obligations. It is his duty, in case of hostilities, to side with his new friends against his old ones; it becomes even proper for him to do all in his power to promote the views of his adopted nation, by killing as many of their enemies as he can; he may even, (and it is his duty to do it,) kill his own father, and, as our guide added, “nay even his grandfather.” In so doing he is not thought to violate any of the obligations of nature, for his adoption has altogether cancelled his former bonds. The expression of Wennebea, “nay even his grandfather,” cannot surprise those who have visited the Sauks, or studied to make themselves acquainted with their peculiarities as one of their most striking precepts is that the more distant, in the ascending line, a parent is, the more is he entitled to respect and affection; hence the killing of a grandfather would, under common circumstances, be considered as far more atrocious than the murder of a father.

To this high opinion of the duties incumbent upon adopted citizens, and to the general humanity Which induces them to spare the lives of their prisoners, we may safely attribute the great accession of numbers which their nation has undergone within the last century. The Sauks have not always resided where they are at present found. Their recollection is that they formerly lived upon Saganaw Bay of Lake Huron, and that about fifty years since they removed, by the way of Greenbay, from the lake shore to their present abode. They seem to consider the name of their nation to be connected with that of Saganaw Bay, and probably derived from it. They have not account of any former migration, but entertain the opinion that the Great Spirit created them in that vicinity.

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With a view to ascertain what were their ideas of moral excellence, we asked Wennebea what, in their opinion, constituted a good man. He immediately replied, that in order to be entitled to this appellation, an Indian ought to be mild in his manners, affable to all, and particularly so to his squaw. His hospitality ought to be boundless; his cabin, as well as all that he can procure, should be at the disposal of any one who visits him. Should he receive presents, he ought to divide them among the young men of his tribe, reserving no share for himself. But what he chiefly considered as characteristic of a good man, was to be mild and not quarrelsome when intoxicated. A good man should keep as many wives as he can support, for this will enable him to extend his hospitality more freely than if he have but one wife. Being asked whether by this he meant that an Indian should offer his squaw to strangers, as is practised by the Missouri nations, he replied that no man of any feeling could do such a thing; he thought there was no man so base as to be guilty of this. Adultery is strictly prohibited; so also is an indiscriminate intercourse of sexes. No good man would encourage it, or partake in it; for men were not made like dogs for promiscuous intercourse; but there are some women, whose passions are not controlled by reason, and these will always find men disposed to share in their shame; no good man would however do so. Neither would a virtuous man always put away his wife for adultery; he ought to admonish and reprove her. Should she continue in her evil practices, then he will be justifiable in discarding, or punishing her. There are among the Sauks some men so base that they will throw off their male garments, assume those of females, and perform all the drudgery allotted to the latter sex, becoming real cinædi . They are always held in contempt, 0234 222 though by some they are pitied, as labouring under an unfortunate destiny which they cannot avoid, being supposed to be impelled to this course by a vision from the female spirit that resides in the moon. Upon the subject of intoxication Wennebea spoke with much feeling and philosophy. “Intoxication,” said he, “is a bad thing; the Indian has been seduced to it by the white man; when our forefathers were first offered liquor they declined it; for they had seen its evil effects upon white men. At last two old men were bribed to taste it; they liked it and took more; they were then affected by it, their language became more voluble; they were merry in their wine. Pleased with the experiment they repeated it, and induced two others to join them; thus, did the evil spread gradually. To drink a little is no improper, but to drink to intoxication is not right; our ancestors have forbidden us to do it. You, white men, can take a little and refrain from more; while the red man follows but the impulse of his feelings; if he takes a little, he requires more, and will have it if he can get at it in any way. You encourage us in this practice; your agents, your traders, instead of withholding it, offer it to us, make us take it, and when we have had a little we lose all control over ourselves. We had no intoxicating draughts before the white man came among us, and we were better men; this has been the ruin of us; all our broils and our quarrels spring from intoxication; some of our women take to liquor; they lose all shame, and become common.” It is melancholy to think of the truth contained in these words; not only do our traders, violation of all law, sell or give liquor to the Indians, but even the agents frequently give them some when they visit the forts, either to keep up a sort of popularity among them, or to rid themselves of their importunities, 0235 223 thus encouraging this fatal propensity, instead of checking it altogether. In this respect the Jesuits were wiser if not more humane than our countrymen, since they are reported by Grangula, an Iroquois chief, “to stave all the barrels of brandy that are brought to our cantons, lest the people getting drunk, should knock them in the head.” *

* “Lahontan's new Voyages to North America, done into English, London, 1703.” Vol. 1, p. 40.

It is the duty of a good Indian to offer, on many occasions, sacrifices to the Master of Life; he ought to give feasts frequently, and expose the skins of white deer upon trees, as an offering to the Great Spirit. In such cases he never partakes of the entertainment himself; but his friends eat it all up, with the exception of a small part which is thrown into the fire. The business of men consists in hunting, fighting, building their lodges, digging their canoes, taking care of their horses, making wooden spoons, &c.; while it is the duty of women to hew wood, to carry water, to plant and raise corn, to take care of their families, and, in the absence of the men; they must attend to their horses, build their lodges, &c. Man's chief and best occupation is hunting; he will never fight unless aggrieved by his enemies, in which case it becomes his duty to resent the injury. A good hunter is held in high esteem and will obtain as many wives as he chooses, because they know that he can support them, but the good warrior is esteemed the first man in the nation.

A woman, in order to deserve the appellation of good, ought to be endued with most of the qualities which constitute virtue among civilized females. To be obedient and affectionate to her husband is her first duty. Kind to all her children, partial to none; affable and courteous to 0236 224 all men, avoiding, however, the appearance of familiarity with any. Her chastity should be inviolate, even at the risk of death; she ought to be industrious, in order that her husband may bee wealthy, and able to extend his hospitality widely. When asked what were the qualifications which were most sought after in the selection of a wife, and if beauty had any influence, Wennebea replied, that they cared but little for a handsome wife, their object being to get a good one, who could attend to all their work, and behave herself as became a good woman. “We are not absolutely regardless of beauty,” said he, “but we think it a trifling acquirement compared with goodness, and therefore pay but little attention to it; some young men are foolish and attend to it, but these are few, and they soon learn to take good wives, without minding their charms.” Being asked what constituted female beauty, he laughed and said, a light complexion, large hazel eyes, a well-formed nose, red lips, and a figure rather small and well proportioned; they seem to have a dislike to very fat women. When questioned as to other points of beauty, he seemed not to have made a study of them; their faces, he said, might be more or less handsome, but in other respects women were all the same. Feeling a little encouraged, he continued in a strain so obscene, as even to put to the blush our old interpreter; Le Sellier; which, for a Canadian trader, might be supposed not to be an easy thing.

It was impossible not to observe in the general tenour of Wennebea's conversation that he admitted a superiority on the part of white men over Indians, at least in foresight, judgment, and capacity to acquire information Wennebea thought that when the Master of Life made the white man, he gave him the power to improve in knowledge and the arts; he taught him how to manufacture all the articles that he 0237 225 wanted, such as cloth, guns, &c. To the red man he gave nothing but his bow and his dog; intending him therefore for no other occupation than that of hunting. This appeared to be a favourite idea with Wennebea; he frequently dwelt upon this partition of the good things of the earth, in which the poor Indian had received but his bow and his faithful dog. It was not alluded to in the spirit of complaint or as a hardship, but merely in support of a deep conviction on his part, that, while the white man was made capable of improvement in the arts, the red man was predestined to remain stationary, and to live by hunting, for which alone he had received, from the All-ruling Spirit, natural advantages. We related to him the belief entertained by other Indians, who justify their hunting life by saying that, in the origin, God divided all animals equally between the red and the white man; and that while the latter took great care of his share, the former merely wrapped his up loosely, in his blanket, and having left it for a while, he found on his return that all the animals belonging to him had escaped into the woods; it was therefore to recover his lost property that he had addicted himself to hunting. Wennebea observed that he had never heard of this belief before; but he thought, if it were true, it was a wise decree of the Master of Life, for, he added, if the Indian had not suffered his share to escape into the woods, he would have destroyed and wasted it in a short time, and been ever after left to starve, as he wants the provident care of the white man; but as it is at present, the Indian can only use his property gradually and according as his wants require it.

Wennebea declined entering upon any particulars relating o their belief in after life, being apprehensive that any conversation on that subject would disturb the quiet 29 0238 226 of his departed relations. According to Le Sellier, he makes a difference between the soul and the spirit; the former being probably in his opinion nothing else but the principle of vitality; its seat is in the heart; all animals are gifted with souls, as they are endowed with vitality. He believes that the soul alone goes to the other world; the body decays after death. We observed in him, and in all the Indians whom we met with, that they entertained not the least belief of the resurrection of the body, as has been asserted of them by some authors; while they generally appeared to be convinced of the immortality of the soul or spirit, and of an after existence.

The Indians are particular in their demonstrations of grief for departed friends. These consist in darkening their faces with charcoal, fasting, abstaining from the use of vermilion and other ornaments in dress, &c. They also make incisions in their arms, legs, and other parts of the body; these are not made for the purposes of mortification, or to create a pain, which shall, by dividing their attention, efface the recollection of their loss, but entirely from a belief that their grief is internal, and that the only way of dispelling it is to give it a vent through which to escape. Their outward signs of grief are not merely of a temporary kind; they are more lasting than among those who consider themselves as higher in the scale of refinement than the red man. Wennebea observed that he had abstained, for the last fifteen years, from the use of vermillion on account of the loss of a valued friend, and he meant to persist in this practice for ten years longer; the deceased was no relation, merely a friend. Public opinion requires of them some mourning for departed relations, but the Indian graduates his expressions of grief according to the value in which he held the deceased, not 0239 227 according to the mere relation in which nature or accident placed him in life; for his friend he entertains a feeling deep, warm, and unalterable. Their friendship is seldom divided between two objects, hence they have not those bands of brothers which are stated by Lewis and Clarke to exist among some of the tribes they visited; but the adoption of a brother is very common with them; it is always founded upon sincere friendship; and in the exposed and wandering life of the Indian, opportunities are not wanting to display the extent of this feeling; An Indian will willingly endanger his existence to save the life of his adopted brother; and should one of the two be killed, there is no duty more strongly enjoined upon the survivor, or which he more willingly discharges, even at the risk of much personal danger, than that of avenging his friend's death.

Against the charge of cannibalism, Wennebea defended his nation with considerable zeal. This practice, he admitted, existed among the Winnebagoes, Chippewas, Dacotas, and other Indians, but he denied its ever occurring: among the Sauks, except in a few instances, in which persons that were very lean and thin would eat a small piece of the human heart., together with other medicines, in order to fatten themselves. When asked whether this must not be considered as offensive to the Deity, he replied that he knew not, he had never held converse with the Great Spirit; he had heard other men say that they had enjoyed visions, and conversations of this kind, but, for his part, he never credited them.

Suicide is, according to Wennebea, common among the Sauks, more so with women than men. Grief and jealousy appear to be the predisposing causes with women, and envy, at the power or consequence of others, is the motive which impels men to this deed. Our guide, whose 0240 228 simple system of ethics agrees better with that of the white man than is generally admitted, considers suicide as an improper act; it does not appear to him to accord with the wishes of t he Great Spirit; he that gave us life, says Wennebea, has alone the power of taking it away.

Music seemed to have a powerful effect upon him, and particularly martial music; he expressed himself in enthusiastic terms on the subject; while at Fort Crawford he seemed delighted with the reveille . The bugle was his favourite instrument. When asked why he preferred it, his answer was, that its notes were so fine, he fancied they must reach the ear of the Great Spirit himself; whenever the sound of the bugle was heard, his attention was immediately directed to it; his eyes sparkled and his language became more animated.

The principal disease of the Sauks is one, the nature of which we could not well ascertain from his description of it; it is different from dysentery, (being at all times unattended by bloody discharges;) neither is it the hemorrhoids or hernia. It appears to be a mortification of the intestinal canal or duct, which is brought on by the use of green corn, unripe fruits and vegetables, &c.; it is more common among men than women. If timely remedies be not applied, it proves fatal in the course of four days; the disease is unaccompanied by pain. He declined mentioning the remedies which have been successfully applied, as he entertains the common superstition on this subject.

Intermittents appear to be very prevalent. The small-pox has been known at different periods; our, guide, who is about thirty-five years of age, recollects two periods, but does not know at what interval of time they happened; it is thought that it will shortly recur among them. Of parturition and gestation, his account agreed with that 0241 229 obtained at Chicago; being asked how long the pains of labour endured among women, he said they varied, sometimes four days, at other times two days or less, and in some cases scarcely long enough to give a man time to smoke a pipe.

We shall close this protracted account of Wennebea's information, with an anecdote which appears to us to connect itself with a point of some interest in our history; it was related to us spontaneously by Wennebea, and having been written down in his own words, shows the strain of ideas, or which he was susceptible.

“You know,” said he, “that we always carry medicine bags about us, and that in these we place the highest confidence; that we take them when we go to war; that we administer of their contents to our relations when sick, &c. The great veneration in which we hold them, arises from our deeming them indispensable to obtain success against our enemies. They have been transmitted to us by our forefathers, who received them at the hands of the Great Master of Life himself. We never venture upon a warlike undertaking unless, by their means, our chiefs should have previously had visions, advising them rode so. When we are near to our enemies, they impart to us the faculty of beholding, in the heavens, great fires passing from one cloud to another. If these fires be numerous, long-continued, and extensive, it is a sure sign to us that in the part of the heavens where we behold them, there are enemies; that they are powerful and numerous, and that we must avoid them. If, on the contrary, they be few, faint and not frequent, then it is a token that our enemies are weak, and that we may attack them with a certainty of success. These are not visions, but realities; we do not dream that we see these fires, but we actually behold them in the heavens; for this reason do we value our medicine bags 0242 230 so highly that we would not part with them while life endures. True, some of us did, at one time, at the instigation of the Shawanese prophet, (Tecumseh's brother,) throw them away, but this proved to us the source of many heavy calamities, it brought on the death of all who parted with their bags. To this cause do we attribute the great mortality which we experienced, during the late war against the Americans. He, (the Shawanese prophet,) came to us, and by artifice induced us to throw away our medicine, a circumstance which we have since had cause to regret. His artifice was this; he convened all our chiefs, and told them that he had been favoured with an interview with the Great Spirit, who had imparted to him extensive powers; that he could recall the dead to life, and perform many such astonishing deeds; that he could restore youth to the aged, &c. that the medicine in our bags, which had been good in its time, had lost its efficacy; that it had become vitiated through age; he added that if we would throw away our medicines, he would execute, in our presence, the miracles which he had spoken of, and that if we followed him, he would ensure us a victory over our enemies. Induced by these promises and flattering expectations, many of our chiefs east away their bags, a circumstance much to be regretted. It is true, that some who were then assembled, challenged the Prophet to work the miracles which he had announced. There, said they, are the bodies of many who have been killed in battle, restore them to life, as thou sayest that thou canst do. But he evaded their challenge by saying to them, I cannot achieve these wonders for you, unless you previously comply with my request to throw away your medicine bags; such of you as shall do so will, on your return, find your children or your friends, that have long since been dead, restored to life. Many 0243 231 were satisfied and did as he bid them; but not one of them ever returned to his home, to see if his promises were fulfilled; for they all fell in battle, on account, as we have always believed, of their having parted with their medicine bags. I,” added Wennebea, “spoke to him plainly; I told him he wished to impose upon us; that our bags had not lost their virtue; that still in the hour of need we applied to them, and generally with success; that we kept them in our villages, and that when our friends were sick, we applied to them for relief; and that if we were not successful in all cases, at least we were so in most instances. But he was very angry at me, and his brother Tecumseh who was near to us, laid his hand upon me and offered to strike me, which he would have done had he not been prevented.”

Thus spoke Wennebea Namoeta, a Sauk Indian of the tribe of P[???]-c[???]-h[???]-m[???]-[???], (which signifies Trout ;) his brother had succeeded to the dignity of chief, although he was younger, being considered a man of more talent; and so Wennebea himself admitted him to be. We regretted that we did not meet with this chief, we should have liked to see what his abilities are; he may be a better warrior or a more impressive orator, but we question much whether he surpasses our guide in genuine philosophy. We have with regret shortened the communication of the observations made by this interesting man; we should have wished to give them entire. They breathe throughout a wisdom which would have done honour to the philosophers of old, and a morality of which no Christian need have blushed. Indeed they speak strongly in favour of the doctrine, that wisdom and morality are the spontaneous growth of the human heart, the seeds of which have been implanted by the great Creator himself; 0244 232 that civilization does not produce them; that the real benefit, which results from it, is that, in some instances, it may curb the passions which would otherwise impede their growth. The Indian appears to us to possess ideas of virtue and morality, which are full as valuable as those that are supposed by some philosophers to be the exclusive appanage of civilization. True, they are, perhaps but too frequently checked in their growth by the uncontrolled sway which his evil propensities exercise over him; propensities which, as we believe, have been unfortunately increased, by an indiscriminate intercourse with the most worthless of white men who, to serve their own selfish ends, have not been ashamed to stimulate the Indian to deeds, which his own good sense would have prevented him from perpetrating.

On the route from Chicago to Fort Crawford we saw but one deer, at which, however, we had no opportunity of shooting. We likewise observed but a single wolf, which was of the kind called Prairie wolf. If to these we add the badger, which was killed on the 17th of June, we shall have the list of the only quadrupeds seen upon upwards of two hundred miles of prairie land. The extreme scarcity of game in a country so remote from a white population as this is, must be striking to every observer; and it becomes the more so if we take into consideration the abundance of fine grass which grows upon it. We know of no other manner of accounting for this scarcity, than by attributing it to the pacific state of the Indian tribes that own these hunting grounds. Being free from all apprehensions of enemies, they hunt without reserve, and destroy the game more rapidly than it can be reproduced. They appear since their intercourse with white men to have lost the sagacious foresight which previously distinguished them. 0245 233 It was usual with them, formerly, to avoid killing the deer during the rutting season; the does, that were with young were in like manner always spared, except in cases of urgency; and the young fawns were not wantonly destroyed; but at present the Indian seems to consider himself as a stranger in the land which his fathers held as their own; he sees his property daily exposed to the encroachments of white men, and therefore hunts down indiscriminately every animal that he meets with, being doubtful whether he will be permitted to reap the ensuing year the fruits of his foresight during the present and fearing lest he may not be suffered to hunt, undisturbed, upon his property, for another season. To this cause, and to the increase in their numbers produced by a long continued peace, we must attribute the scarcity of game at present observed; their population must however soon cease to increase if they do not betake themselves to agricultural pursuits, as the rapid diminution in the quantity of game will eventually deprive them of the means of subsistence. We are not to wonder that an Indian population, apparently so small as that which we know to exist here, should be comparatively large for the country to which it is restricted in its hunts, if we bear in mind the observations of Little Turtle on the subject, “You whites contrive to collect upon a small space a sure and plentiful supply of food. A white man gathers from a field, a few times bigger than this room, bread enough for a whole year. If he adds to this a small field of grass, he maintains beasts, which give him all the meat and clothes he wants, and all the rest of his time he may do what he pleases; while we must have a great deal of ground to live upon. A deer will serve us but a couple of days, and a single deer must have a great deal of ground to put him in good condition. If we kill two or three hundred 30 0246 234 a year, 'tis the same as to eat all the wood and grass of the land they live on, and that is a great deal.” *

* Volney, ut supra, p. 384.

Among the birds observed, Mr. Say has recorded a single Red-headed Woodpecker, † together with the Ferruginous Thrush, ‡ Towhee Bunting, § Song Sparrow, [???] Chipping Sparrow, * * Bartram's Sandpiper, † † Raven, ‡ ‡ Reedbird, and a Crow § § which was first heard near the Wisconsan.

† Picus erythrocephalus.

‡ Turdus rufus.

§ Emberiza erythropthalma.

[???] Fringilla melodia.

* * Fringilla socialis.

† † Tringa Bartramia.

‡ ‡ Corvus corax.

§ § Corvus corone.

In the vegetable kingdom, the same gentleman observed that the Gerardria was found, about the 15th, with its petals nearly of full length, but that afterwards they were found much shorter. A beautiful specimen of Cassida was likewise seen; its elytra were of a fine green colour tinged with golden; and the exterior margins were pale.

CHAPTER VI.

Prairie du Chien. Indian remains. Division of the party. Mississippi. Dacota villages. Fort St. Anthony. Falls. River St. Peter .

OUR arrival at Prairie du Chien, at a late hour in the evening of the 19th of June, prevented us from obtaining a sight of the Mississippi; but early the next morning we hastened to take a view of this important river which, from its extent, the number and size of its tributaries, the importance of the country which it drains, will bear a comparison with any known stream of the old or new continent. It is one of those grand natural objects, the sight of which forms an era in one's life.

To have been the first civilized man, who viewed the mighty Mississippi, was, as we conceive, by no means an undesirable distinction. And however difficult it may be, at this distant epocha; to ascertain who that man may have been, the inquiry is not the less interesting or useful in the history of human discoveries. So far as our reading extends at present, injustice is done to Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca. He traversed North America from Espiritu Santo (Tampa) Bay to New Galicia, between the years 1528 and 1537, and consequently must have seen this river, having crossed it above or at its mouth; though in his “Naufragios” he has given neither name nor description by which it can be identified; his curiosity was repressed by extreme suffering and the little hope he entertained of again seeing his country. Hernando de Soto arrived at its banks below the Arkansaw in 1541, and found it there called “Chucagua;” his body was thrown into it the next 0248 236 year, near the mouth of Red river. If we mistake not, two vessels under the command of Wood, an Englishman, entered its mouth about 1636. * Father Marquette and the Sieur Joliet, to whom the discovery has been generally attributed, did not see the Mississippi before 1673. They entered from the Wisconsan and descended to the Arkansaw. Coxe tells us, † that, among the savages, for about half its course it was called Meschacebe, afterwards Chucagua, Sassagoula and Malabanchia. It is said that at Guachoya, (probably an old place on the Mississippi above Red river,) it was “called Tamaliseu; in the country of Nilco, Tapatu; and in Coça, Mico; in the port or mouth, Ri.” ‡ The French first called it Colbert, then St. Louis river. The Spaniards had previously called it Rio Grande, Spirito Santo.

* We have endeavoured, but in vain, to find our authority for this statement; but it has entirely escaped our recollection. This is not, however, the same Colonel Wood of Virginia, whom Coxe mentions as having discovered several branches of the great rivers Ohio and Meschacebe.—(Coxe's Carolana, p. 120.)

† Description of the English province of Carolana, by Daniel Coxe, London, 1741, p. 4.

‡ Narrative of de Soto's Invasion, ut supra, p. 122.

At Prairie du Chien the breadth of the river is estimated at one-half of a mile, including a long and narrow island. Its current, though rapid compared with that of many other streams, is gentle when contrasted with that of the same river lower down; it is only when it has been swollen by the Missouri and the Ohio, that it acquires the extreme rapidity which characterizes it. The village of Prairie du Chien is situated four or five miles above the mouth of the Wisconsan, on a beautiful prairie, which extends along the eastern bank of the river for about ten miles in length, and which is limited to the east by a range of steep hills rising to a height of about four hundred and thirty-five feet, and 0249 237 running parallel with the course of the river at a distance of about a mile and a half; on the western bank, the bluffs which rise to the same elevation are washed at their base by the river. Pike's mountain, which is on the west bank, immediately opposite to the mouth of the Wisconsan, is about five hundred and fifty feet high. “It has received its name from having been recommended by the late General Pike, in his journal, as a position well calculated for the construction of a military post to command the Mississippi and Wisconsan. The hill has no particular limits in regard to its extent, being merely a part of the river bluffs which stretch along the margin of the river on the west, for several miles, and retain pretty nearly the same elevation above the water. The side fronting upon the river is so abrupt as to render the summit completely inaccessible even to a footman except in a very few places, where he may ascend by taking hold of the bushes and rocks that cover the slope. In general the acclivity is made up of precipices, arranged one above another, some of which are one hundred and one hundred and fifty feet high. From the top we had a fine view of the two rivers, which mingled their waters at the foot of this majestic hill.” * The Prairie has retained its old French appellation, derived from an Indian who formerly resided there, and was called the Dog. The village consists, exclusive of stores, of about twenty dwelling houses, chiefly old, and many of them in a state of decay; its population may amount to one hundred and fifty souls. It is not in as thriving a situation as it formerly was. Carver tells us, that when he visited it, in 1766, it was “a large town containing about three hundred families; the houses,” he adds, “are well built after the Indian manner, and pleasantly situated on a very rich

* Major Long's MS. 1817, No. 1, p. 37.

0250 238 soil, from which they raise every necessary of life in great abundance. This town is the great mart where all the adjacent tribes, and even those who inhabit the most remote branches of the Mississippi, annually assemble about the latter end of May, bringing with them their furs to dispose of to the traders.” * “I should have remarked,” says the same author, “that whatever Indians happen to meet at La Prairie le Chien, the great mart to which all who inhabit the adjacent country resort, though the nations to which they belong are at war with each other, yet they are obliged to restrain their enmity, and to forbear all hostile acts during their stay there. This regulation has long been established among them for their mutual convenience, as without it no trade could be carried on.” †

* Carver's Travels, Philadelphia, 1796, p. 31.

† Idem, p. 62.

The fort, which is one of the rudest and least comfortable that we have seen, is situated about one hundred and fifty yards from the river. Its site is low and unpleasant, as a slough extends to the south of it. The river bank is here so low and flat, that by a swell which took place in the Mississippi the summer before we visited it, the water rose upon the prairie, and entered the parade, which it covered to the depth of three or four feet; it penetrated into all the officers' and soldiers' quarters, so as to render it necessary for the garrison to remove from the fort and encamp upon the neighbouring heights, where they spent about a month. The waters having subsided, at the end of that time, they returned to their quarters; the old men about the village say that such an inundation may be expected every seven years. The village also suffered much from the inundation, though the ground being somewhat higher, the injury done to it was not so great. The fort was 0251 239 originally erected for the protection of the white population. at the village; as a military post, its situation is by no means a judicious one, for it commands neither the Mississippi nor Wisconsan; but as the necessity which led to its construction is daily becoming less urgent, this position will doubtless soon be abandoned; one of the blockhouse of the fort is situated upon a large mound, which appears to be artificial. This mound is so large, that it supported the whole of the work at this place, previous to the capture of the fort by the British and Indians during the late war. It has been excavated, but we have not heard that any bones or other remains were found in it. This is by no means the only mound found in the vicinity of the Prairie. There are very numerous remains of Indian works on tile Wisconsan, near the Petit cap au Grés ; Messrs. Say, Keating, and Seymour, went to examine them. They found the bluffs which border upon the Wisconsan, about four miles above its mouth, covered with mounds, parapets, &c. but no plan or system could he observed among them neither could they trace any such thing as a regular enclosure. Among these works, they saw an embankment about eighty-five yards long, divided towards its middle by a sort of gateway, about four yards wide; this parapet was elevated from three to four feet; it stood very near to the edge of the bluff, as did also almost all the other embankments which they saw. From this circumstance, they were led to consider them as raised for the protection of a party placed there, either for the defence of the bluff, or to command the passage of the river. For either of these objects, it must be acknowledged that the selection of the position would be very advantageous. No connexion whatever was observed between the parapets and the mounds, except in one case, where a parapet was cut off 0252 240 by a sort of gateway or sally-port, and a mound was placed in front of it, as it were, to command the gateway; but instead of being inside, in the manner of a traverse, it was outside, and could have served no other purpose, that they could think of, but to allow some of the party to proceed a few steps in advance of the works and reconnoitre the enemy; though it must be acknowledged that the enemy might, under cover of this mound, have approached, perhaps, without being perceived, or at least with the advantage of a breast-work. In one instance the works or parapets seemed to form a cross of which three parts could be distinctly traced, but these were short, this was upon a projecting point of the highland. The mounds, which the party observed, were scattered, without any apparent symmetry, over the whole of the ridge of highland, which borders upon the river. They were very numerous, and generally from six to eight feet high, and from eight to twelve in diameter. In one case a number of these, amounting perhaps to twelve or fifteen, were seen all arranged in one line, parallel to the edge of the bluff, but at some distance from it.

These are not the only works in this vicinity; it appears that the mounds and parapets extend not only along the Wisconsan, but upon the bluffs which run parallel to the Mississippi and limit the Prairie to the east. From the description which Mr. Say and his companions gave to Major Long, of what they had seen, it appeared that these could not have been the same as those he observed in 1817. According to his MS. Journal of 1817, (No. 2, fol. 22,) “the remains of ancient works, constructed probably for military purposes, were found more numerous and of greater extent, on the highlands, just above the mouth of Wisconsan, than any of which a description has been 0253 241 made public, or that have as yet been discovered in the western country. There the parapets and mounds were found connected in one series of works; whenever there was an angle in the principal lines, a mound of the largest size was erected at the angle; the parapets were terminated by mounds at each extremity, and also at the gateways; no ditch was observed on either side of the parapet. In many places the lines were composed of parapets and mounds in conjunction, the mounds being arranged along the parapets at their usual distance from each other, and operating as flank defences to the lines.”

“The remains were observed in the interior of the country in a direction towards Kickapoo creek; they were situated for the most part on the ridges, but a few also in the valleys. Those on the ridges had the appearance of having been intended to resist an attack on both sides, being for the most part a single parapet of considerable extent, crossed at right angles by traverses at the distance of twenty or thirty yards from each other; and having no ditch upon either side. Those in the valleys appeared to have been constructed to command the passage of the particular valleys in which they were situated. We saw no works which exhibited signs of having been complete enclosures, but the whole were in detached parts, &c.”

The following account of the nature of the country, back of the prairie, extending towards Kickapoo creek, (a tributary of the Wisconsan, which empties itself on the north bank about twenty miles above its mouths,) is extracted from the same MS.

“The country is divided into numerous hills or rather ridges, of various shapes and dimensions, but generally of an equal altitude, by valleys and ravines, some of which have fine streams of spring water running through 31 0254 242 them. The hills are generally elevated from three hundred to four or hundred feet above the valleys; they are handsomely rounded upon their top, but abrupt and precipitous on their sides, and almost inaccessible except through the numerous ravines by which they are cut. The valleys are many of them broad, and appear well adapted to tillage and pasture; the highlands are also well calculated for the raising of grain. The country is generally prairie land, but the hills and valleys are in some places covered with a scattering growth of fine timber, consisting of white, red, and post oak, hickory, white walnut, * sugar tree, maple, white and blue ash, American box, &c.”

* Juglans cinerea.

It is probable that Prairie du Chien was formerly the seat of a large Indian population. The beauty of the country, its favourable characters for hunting, its delightful situation on the bank of the river, must have made it a pleasant abode for Indians; it is doubtful, or at least we have not been able to ascertain, to what nation belonged the family of the Dog Indians, whose name it bears. This family has become extinct; the traditions concerning the fate of its members are very indistinct; it is said that a large party of Indians came down the Wisconsan from Greenbay, and after having massacred nearly the whole of them, returned again to the Bay; that a few of the Dogs, who had succeeded in making their escape to the woods, returned after their enemies had evacuated the prairie, and reestablished themselves in their former residence; and that these were the Indians found at that place by the first French settlers.

This spot, like many of those early settled, has been graced with traditions, which, if they contribute but little to the history of our north-west Indians, adorn at least with the 0255 243 charm of romance and fable Some of its most beautiful scenery. Among these, that, which is related of one of the caverns on the banks of Kickapoo creek, appears to us to deserve notice. It is said that, in one of the niches of or recesses formed by the precipice, there is a gigantic mass of stone presenting the appearance of a human figure. It is so sheltered, by the over-hanging rocks, and by the sides of the recess in which it stands, as to assume a dark and gloomy character. They relate, on this subject, that long since, a battle was fought on the banks of the Mississippi between the inhabitants of the prairie and their enemies; in which conflict the latter were victorious, and succeeded in killing a great number of the former; that an inhabitant of the prairie, who was a very good woman, having received several wounds during the engagement, effected her escape and withdrew to the hills, where she was near perishing with hunger; that while wandering along the banks of this stream, a kind spirit took pity of her, and converted her into this monument to which he, moreover, imparted the power of suddenly killing any Indian that approached near it. This power was exercised until the spirit, tired of the havoc which he had committed, ceased to display his vengeance any longer. Although the natives may therefore, at present, approach the statue with impunity still they hold it in fear and veneration, and none passes near it without paying it the homage of a sacrifice of tobacco, &c.

There are at present but few Indians in the immediate vicinity of the fort, and none can give an account of the works which are so abundantly scattered over the country. They say that the only means by which they can account for them is to suppose that the country was probably inhabited, at a period anterior to the most remote traditions, by a race of white men, similar to those of European origin, 0256 244 and that they were cut off by their forefathers. This supposition is grounded upon the circumstance of their having found human bones buried in the earth at a much greater depth than that, at which they are accustomed to inter their dead; and in graves which differ from theirs, inasmuch as they are unaccompanied by instruments of any kind, whereas they never omit depositing the arms, &c. with the corpse of the deceased. It is also said that tomahawks of brass (?) and other implements differing from those in common use among the present Indians, have likewise been found under the surface of the ground.. The fortifications appear to them likewise to be a proof of the correctness of their opinion, as none of the Indians are in the habit of constructing works of a similar character, and as indeed they are unacquainted with the utility of them.

“Mr. Brisbois, who has been for a long time a resident of Prairie du Chien, informed me that he saw the skeletons of eight persons, that were found, in digging a cellar near his house, lying side by side. They were of a gigantic size, measuring about eight feet from head to foot. He added that he took a leg bone of one of them and placed it by the side of his own leg, in order compare the length of the two; the bone of the skeleton extended six inches above his knee. None of these bones could be preserved as they crumbled to dust soon after they were exposed to the atmosphere.” *

* Major Long's MS. No. 2, folio 25.

We saw a number of Indian graves on the prairie, but as they were modern they offered nothing peculiar. They resemble the graves of white men, but the sod over them is covered with boards or bark, secured to stakes driven into the ground, so as to form a sort of roof over the grave; at the head, poles were erected for the purpose of supporting flags; a few tatters of one of these still waved over the 0257 245 grave. An upright post was also fixed near the head, and upon this the deeds of the deceased, whether in the way of hunting or fighting, were inscribed with red or black paint. The graves were placed upon mounds in the prairie, this situation having doubtless been selected as being the highest and least likely to be overflowed.

From a series of observations, taken at this place, it results that Fort Crawford is situated in latitude 43° 3′ 31″ north, and longitude 90° 52′ 30″ west. The magnetic variation amounts here to 8° 48′ 52″ east.

Previous to leaving the prairie, Major Long provided for the safe return of Bemis to his garrison, by placing him under the protection of Mr. Rolette, a gentleman of the American Fur Company, who was on the point of travelling to Greenbay by the Wisconsan and Fox rivers. Between the forts at the Bay and Chicago a regular intercourse existed at the time by means of an express sent, at stated times, with despatches. We have had great pleasure in ascertaining that this man, whose conduct had entitled him to the most unqualified praise, returned to his regiment without accident.

Our party was here reinforced by an escort, consisting of a corporal, and nine men, under the command of first Lieutenant Martin Scott of the 5th regt. United States' Infantry, who was selected to command the guard. Major Long secured the services of a half-breed interpreter, by name Augustin Roque. The object in taking this man, was to afford to the gentlemen, charged with the collecting of the Indian information, an opportunity of acquiring from him an insight into the manners and customs of the Dacota Indians, previous to the party's travelling through their country. They were, however, very much disappointed in the character of this man, who enjoys, in the 0258 246 country, a much higher reputation for intelligence and observation, than they were led to ascribe to him, and as the information which he contributed was but trifling, it has been thought proper to embody it with that resulting from personal observations, and from conversations with the interpreters who subsequently accompanied the expedition. With a view to proceed, with as much speed as possible, to Fort St. Anthony, where the last preparations were to be made, Major Long divided the party here, and travelled by land with Mr. Colhoun; while the other gentlemen ascended the Mississippi in a boat. The land party was accompanied by George Bunker, (a soldier,) John Wade, (a boy of garrison, who acted as Sioux interpreter,) and Andrew, (the black boy.) Tommo, a Dacota (Sioux) Indian, acted as guide to the party; he was a tall; gaunt Indian, about fifty years old. After having crossed the river in the boat, the two parties separated; and Major Long continued his journey on horseback, along the right bank of the Mississippi.

The route from Prairie du Chien to Fort St. Anthony, was attended with greater difficulties than had been anticipated. It was extremely rough and hilly; there being no beaten track, the party were frequently led to the edge of a precipice, and compelled to retrace their steps and seek a more gradual descent; These difficulties arose from their travelling, for the most part, at a distance from the river, with a view to shorten the road; the highlands, which they had attempted to keep, were frequently cut by transverse valleys, opened by streams, tributary to the Mississippi. In the crossing of these streams, much difficulty was experienced from the swampy nature of the ground, in which the horses were frequently mired. The distance at which they travelled from the Mississippi seldom exceeded 0259 247 five or six miles. The guide said it would be difficult to travel at a greater distance, although it might shorten the route, because the country was too thickly wooded, and water very scarce; this last circumstance can only be accounted for upon the supposition, that the water escapes through the numerous sinks observed in the ground. The forests, traversed by the party, consisted principally of oak, basswood, ash, elm, white walnut, sugar tree, maple, birch, aspen, with a thick undergrowth of hazel, hickory, &c. In the bottoms the wild rice, horsetail, may-apple, &c. were found. The eye is charmed by the abundance of wild roses which are strewed over the country, and the palate is not less delighted with the excellence of the strawberry, which is remarkable for its fine fragrance, and which was, just at that time, in a state of perfect maturity. A small Indian village, of five lodges, was passed on the 26th; it is situated on a stream, supposed to be the upper Iowa. Judging from the number of women and children which the party saw, the population must be dense; there were but two or three men in the village; the rest were probably hunting, especially as a large herd of Elk were seen in the morning by the boys of the party, while in search of the horses, that had strayed during the night time tea distance of eight miles from the camp. The whole population of the village seemed to have no other culture than about two acres of maize, which was planted without order in hills and which had at that time risen but about eight inches above the ground.

At the encampment of the 27th, observations were taken at three o'clock, A. M. (of the 28th,) by which the latitude of this place was determined to be 43° 47′ 57″ north. About one mile north of this, the party crossed a river, called, in the Dacota language, H[???]-k[???], ( Root ,) which is 0260 248 supposed to be the Riviere Longue * or Riviere Morte of Lahontan, and the Mitschaoywa of Coxe; † this is the same stream which Coxe after wards calls Meschaouay. ‡ But it is impossible to read the Baron Lahontan's account of this river, without being convinced that the greater part, if not the whole, of it is a deception. By his own account he must have ascended it upwards of one hundred and eighty leagues, have met on its banks three distinct nations, the Eokoros, the Essanapes, and the Gnacsitares, the names of which are not recorded by any later traveller; have seen a population considerably greater than that which could have existed there: in a word his description bears such evident marks of fiction, that we can credit no part of it.

* Lahontan, ut supra, Let. 16, vol. 1, p. 112.

† Description of the English province of Carolana, by the Spaniards called, Florida, and by the French la Louisiane; by Daniel Coxe, Esq. London, 1741, p.19.

‡ Idem, ibid. p. 63.

Major Long's party passed on the down a valley, bounded on both sides by high bluffs and precipices; their ride was a picturesque one; the green sward of the ravine contrasted richly with the grayish hue of the lime and sandstone bluffs, which rose like high walls on either side of them. At last the valley widened, and they found themselves almost instantaneously in sight of the majestic Mississippi, in whose broadly extended valley nature displayed herself with gigantic features. The river, one of the largest in the world, rolling its waters with an undiminished rapidity, in a bed checkered with islands, was a spectacle which, however often observed, always filled the mind with awe and with delight. It was impossible to behold the great devastation in the earth's surface, whether considered as caused by the Mississippi or as pre-existing to 0261 249 it, without being induced to look back to the causes which may have produced this phenomenon. But here man finds himself baffled in every attempt to dive into the abyss of past times; he may contemplate the scenery, but cannot unravel the mysteries of its creation. Deep strata of sandstone and limestone are disclosed; they have preserved, as yet, the elevation of the hills undiminished, but have not protected their sides from waste. “When we entered on the prairie, towards the close of the day,” says Mr. Colhoun, from whose notes this description is chiefly extracted, “a landscape was presented, that combined grander beauties than any I ever beheld; far as the eye could follow were traced two gigantic walls of the most regular outline, formed, as it were, by successive faces of pyramids. Between them, extended a level verdant prairie, the scene of the Python flexures of the Mississippi. My sensations were prolonged by the reflection that I had before me one of the noblest rivers in the world; they were enhanced when I saw the evidences of a grand catastrophe. Majestic as is the Mississippi, there was a time when it swept along, a stream, more than one hundred fold its present volume.”

Whatever might be the reveries in which the party were indulging, they were soon recalled to the dull realities of travelling, by the howling and barking of a band of dogs, that announced their approach to an Indian village consisting of twenty fixed lodges and cabins. It is controlled by W[???]-p[???]-sh[???], an Indian chief of considerable distinction. In his language, (Dacota,) his name signifies the red leaf . A number of young men fantastically decorated with many and variously coloured feathers, and their faces as oddly painted, advanced to greet the party. One of them, the son of the chief, was remarkable for the gaudiness and display 32 0262 250 of his dress, which from its showy appearance imparted to him a character of foppishness. In his hair he wore two or three soldiers' plumes; his moccasins of stained buckskin were tastefully puckered at the toes, and his breech-cloth was quite tawdry. The chief is about fifty years of age, but appears older; his prominent features are good and indicative of great acuteness and of a prying disposition; his stature is low; he has long been one of the most influential of the Dacota Indians, more perhaps from his talents in the counsel than his achievements in the field. He is represented as being a wise and prudent man, a forcible and impressive orator. His disposition to the Americans has generally been a friendly one, and his course of policy is well spoken of. The. major's party having no other interpreter than Wade, who proved less serviceable than had been expected, could hold but a short conversation with him, and therefore proceeded on their journey, and encamped two miles above the village. Near this place a number of mounds were seen, arranged in nearly a right line along the margin of the river; they were of inconsiderable height, but covered a large surface. Indian remains were observed, in great plenty, for the ensuing two days, extending along the banks of the Mississippi, and especially near the shores of Lake Pepin, along which the land party travelled on the 30th. These mounds and remains attest, of course, the former existence of a very dense population along the lake. It must have been a stationary one, for these works could not have been executed in a short space of time. We are, likewise, led to believe that they were erected by the same nation that constructed the fortifications described by Carver as existing on the bank of the Mississippi a little below Lake Pepin. The latitude of the encampment, near the lower extremity of the lake, was 0263 251 found, by observations made on the evening of the 29th of June, to be 44° 18′ 37″ north.

Having travelled twenty-two miles along its western shore, Major Long arrived on the evening of the 30th at an Indian village, which is under the direction of Shakea, ( the man that paints himself red ;) the village has retained the appellation of Redwing, ( aile rouge ,) by which this chief was formerly distinguished. The provisions of the party being almost consumed, and the heat having been seen the preceding day at a short distance below the land party, Major Long thought it more prudent to wait here the arrival of the other division, in order to get a fresh supply of provisions. About ten o'clock, on the morning of the first of July, the boat appeared in sight of the Village, and signals having been made, the gentlemen landed. The whole party being again united, the chief invited them to his lodge, with a view to have a formal conversation with them.

Shakea is one of the most distinguished of the present leaders of the Dacotas. It does not appear, however, that he is entitled by birth to rank as a chief; but the influence, which he has attained, is founded altogether upon his great military attainments; it is said that he has never been defeated, although he has shared in more actions than almost any other Indian. The respect with which he is treated, which far exceeds that usually paid to a partisan chief, has induced him to assume an importance and a formality, seldom to be met with among the Indians of the present day. As a compliment to the party, the United States' flag was hoisted over his cabin, and a deputation of some of his warriors waited at our encampment to invite us to his lodge. We were received in due ceremony; the chief and his son, T[???]t[???]nk[???]m[???]n[???], (the walking buffalo,) were seated 0264 252 next to the entrance. We took our stations near them, on the same bed-frame, while his warriors seated themselves on the frame opposite to us; as soon as we entered, the chief and his son rose, and shook hands with each of us. The calumet of peace was placed in the centre of the cabin; the bowl resting on the ground, and the stem supported in an inclined position by a forked stick, planted in the ground for the purpose. The chief then rose, shook hands with the party a second time, raised the pipe from the ground, and holding the bowl towards himself with the stem elevated, he commenced a speech which was delivered with much vehemence; the purport of it was an acknowledgment of satisfaction, at seeing a party sent by his Great Father, (the President,) and a general expression of good wall and respect towards the American government; he inquired as to the nature of the expedition and its object. Very often during his speech, the commencement of a sentence was in the concluding terms of the preceding one; the warriors, at each sentence, testified their approbation of his sentiments, in deep-toned responses, sounding like the syllables ah-hah , pronounced strongly, and in a nasal and guttural manner. Major Long stated, in reply, the nature and object of the expedition, the views of the government in sending it among the Indians, the friendly disposition. of the President towards all his red children, &c. With all this the chief appeared well pleased, as also with the presents of tobacco, powder, shot, &c. which were given to him; but he stated that his warriors had been much distressed of late, by the loss of numerous friends and relatives, on which account their faces were painted black, that they had not a single drop of spirits to comfort them in their afflictions, and “hoped that their Father would give them some of their Great Father's milk to gladden their 0265 253 hearts.” But they were informed that the expedition was totally unprovided with this article, as it was their Great Father's wish, that the Indians should not receive, from white men, liquor, the effect of which was to drive away their senses, make them quarrelsome and sick. Shakea assented to the truth of this, and acknowledged that the use of liquor was very injurious to them, but seemed, however, to regret that he could not make himself merry on the occasion of the glad tidings which he had received from his Great Father. Both he and his son made speeches which were not remarkable for the beauty or originality of the ideas; these may, however, have lost their force through our interpreter's inelegant and unanimated translation. But the gestures, which accompanied the words of the orator, were more remarkable for force, than for grace or significance. A young Indian who acted as pipe-bearer to fide chief, (an office of dignity,) then lighted the pipe, passed it round to all, commencing with Major Long, proceeding with our party, and concluding with the warriors and, interpreter. The pipe-bearer supported the bowl, while each person present drew two or three whiffs. He then smoked of it himself, and, drawing out the stem, presented it to Major Long in token of respect. The bowl, which he kept, was of the red stone found on the St. Peter; the stem was of wood, and made in the usual manner of the Dacota pipe. Its length is about three feet, it is flattened, being about two inches wide, and three-eighths of an inch thick. It tapers a little towards the upper extremity; a hole is perforated through it, with a hot iron; the pipe stem is painted with a blue clay, which, by long exposure to the air assumes a green colour; the upper extremity, to about one-third of its length, is ornamented with porcupine quills variously dyed, so as to present beautiful designs; 0266 254 signs; it is also adorned with the small feathers of birds, pigeons, &c. and with the hair of the deer, stained red. Some of these pipes are very elegant, and require a great deal of time in their preparation; they are made by the females. The chief distinction, between the Dacota and Chippewa pipe, is, that the latter is cylindrical and about an inch in diameter; while the former is, as we have just mentioned, flattened. Both nations use bowls of the same stone, which is generally red, sometimes, however, black; they are often curiously carved, &c.

The conversation concluded with another general shaking of the hand. The frequency of this ceremony, during the interview which we had with the Redwing chief; who is considered as pertinaciously adhering to all their old customs, led us to inquire whether the practice of shaking hands originally existed among the Indians, or if it was not introduced among them by Europeans. An acquaintance with many nations has proved, that the modes of salutation varied, according to the diversity which exists in their manners, languages, &c. It would, therefore, be singular, that the same practice, which prevails among us, and which we received from o